CONSTRUCTION FOLIO

Shikhar Singhal
B.Arch 4th year (8th Semester)
Ansal School of Architecture,
Lucknow.
CONTENTS
 ADVACED STRUCTURAL
CONCRETE  PREFABRICATION
-Light Weight Concrete -Open Prefab system
-High Strength Concrete -Large Panel Prefab

 PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE  DEFECTS AND REMEDIES

-Methods of pre-stressing & application
-Defects by Dampness
-Pre-stressing Materials
-Applied Forces
 SPEEDY CONSTRUCTION
-Waffle Grid
-Lift Slab Construction
-Modular Coordination
-

 INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
-Portal Frame
-North Light Truss
-Details
LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
 Light weight concrete can be defined as a type
of concrete which includes an expanding agent
that increases the volume of the mixture while
giving additional qualities.
 Lightweight aggregate concrete can be produced
using a variety of lightweight aggregates like:
• Natural materials, like volcanic pumice.
• Processing of industrial by-products such as
pelletised expanded slab, i.e. Pellite.
 The size of air bubbles: 0.1mm- 1.5mm.
 Foamed concrete is ideal for filling redundant
voids such as disused fuel tanks, sewer systems,
pipelines, and culverts - particularly where access
is difficult.
 Good thermal insulation properties make foamed
concrete also suitable for sub-screeds and filling
under-floor voids.
ADVANTAGES
 Rapid and relatively simple construction.
 Significant reduction of overall weight results in
saving structural frames, footing or piles.
 Most of lightweight concrete have better nailing
and sawing properties than heavier.
HIGH STRENGTH High Strength concrete is a term used to
CONCRETE describe concrete with special properties not
attributed to normal concrete.
 High-performance means that the concrete has
one or more of the following properties:
-low shrinkage,
-low permeability,
-a high modulus of elasticity
 High-strength concrete is made by lowering the
water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower.
 Often silica fume is added to prevent the
formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in
the cement matrix, which might reduce the
strength at the cement-aggregate bond.
DISADVANTAGES
 Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make
concrete mixes significantly less workable.
 To compensate for the reduced workability,
superplasticizers are added to high-strength
mixtures.
ADMIXTURES
 Pozzolans, such as fly ash and silica fume
Fly Ash Slica Fume  These materials impart additional strength to
the concrete by reacting with portland cement
hydration products.
LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
DISADVANTAGES
• The mixtures are very sensitive to water content.
• Difficult to place and finish because of the
porosity and angularity of the aggregate.
• In some mixes, the cement mortar may separate
the aggregate and float towards the surface.
• Mixing time is longer than conventional concrete
to assure proper mixing.
AGGRGATES USED TO PRODUCE LIGHT-
WEIGHT
 Inorganic Natural Aggregates: pumice, scoria
and volcanic cinders are natural, porous volcanic
rocks with a bulk density of 500 – 800 kg/m3
 straw can be mixed with a binder to provide a
lightweight natural aggregate as they have air
trapped within their structures once they have low
moisture content.
Shale Slate
 Manufactured aggregates:
1. Bloated clay, sintered fly ash and foamed blast
furnace slag.
2. Lightweight expanded clay aggregate: This is
produced by heating clay to a temperature of
1000 – 1200 oC, which causes it to expand due to
the internal generation of gases that are trapped
Fly Ash Pumice Stone inside.
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
 Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete
construction material which is placed under
compression prior to supporting any applied loads.
 It is a combination of steel and concrete that takes
advantages of the strengths of each material.
 Structural concrete in which internal stresses have3
been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses
in the concrete resulting from loads.

METHODS –

a) Pre-tensioning
b) Post-tensioning

PRE-TENSIONING :
-Placing of concrete around reinforcing tendons that
have been stressed to the desired degree.
-After concrete has hardened, the tendons are
released by cutting them at the anchorages.
-The tendons are stressed by Hydraulic jacks.
-The tendons transfer the compression stress to
concrete.
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

POST-TENSIONING :
-It is a method of reinforcing concrete where the
tendons are stressed and each end is anchored
to concrete after the concrete has been cast and
has attained enough strength.
-After the tendons have been stressed, the void
between the tendons & the sheath is filled with
grout.

 BONDED POST-TENSIONING CONCRETE-

-Concrete is casted around a curved duct to
allow tendons to insert.
-After concrete has hardened, the tendons are
pulled in tension & then wedged.
-The duct is then grouted.
-Restricts movements of tendons.
 ADVANTAGES-
-Tendons do not de-stress.
-Tendon design can be re-created.
-Higher strength due to bond generated between
tendons & concrete.
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

 UN-BONDED POST-TENSIONING
CONCRETE-
-Steel in the concrete is stretched after curing
process.
-It provides freedom of movement by coating
each tendon with grease.
 ADVANTAGES-
-Post-stress grouting is eliminated.
-Economical.
-Replaceable.
-Ability to de-stress.
DIFFERENCES OF POST-TENSIONING AND PRE-
STRESSING

POST-TENSIONING
 There is relatively less loss of pre-stress due to concrete shrinkage as at the time of pre-
stressing concrete has already been cured.
 Corrosion of steel is less as compared to pre-tensioning.
 There is more flexibility in design.
 The pre-stressing tendons can be configured to almost any shape as per requirements the
tendons may be bonded or unbonded.
 They are more prone to anchorage failure as the compressive forces are transferred at the
beam ends. Hence compressive stresses are concentrated.

PRE-TENSIONING
 Difficult to perform at site.
 Only done in precast yards.
 There is greater loss of prestress due to shrinkage of concrete.
 Concrete and steel tendons are in direct contact so any moisture that slips through cracks in
concrete will cause corrosion in steel.
 Tendons can only be straight or circular.
 Since the compressive forces are transferred over a certain length of bond, they are less prone
to anchorage failure.
WAFFLE GRID SLAB
 A Waffle slab is a type of building construction that
has two directional reinforcement on outside of the
building, giving it the pockets on a waffle.
 It can be concrete, wood or metal construction.
 Waffle slab gives structural stability without using
any additional material.
 It is perfect for large flat areas.
 Waffle slab can be used in both ceiling and floor
slab.
 Concrete waffle slab is used in industrial and
commercial building while wood and other metal are
used in other projects.
 Used in airports, parking garages, commercial and
industrial buildings, bridges, residencesand other
structures requiring extra stability.

ADVANTAGES
 Allows savings on weight & material.
 Long spans.

DISADVANTAGES
 Requires special or proprietary formwork.
 Greater floor-to-floor height.
LIFT SLAB CONSTRUCTION
 Lift slab construction is a method of
constructing concrete buildings by casting the floor
or roof slab on top of the previous slab and then
raising (jacking) the slab up with hydraulic jacks.
 Lift-Slab Construction is a precast method of
construction of slab on the ground and then lifting it
to the structure.
 Typically, columns are erected first.
 Openings are left around the columns, and a steel
collar is slid down each column for embedment in
every slab.
 The collar is used for lifting the slab, connecting it to
the column, and reinforcing the slab against shear.

ADVANTAGES
 More economic than conventional construction when
the building is vertically uniform, such as, apartment
buildings and where the slab designs are repetitive.
 Offers substantial savings in formwork.

DISADVANTAGES
 Performance of hydraulic elevator becomes erratic
as the oil in the system varies in temperature.
 Inherently high heat producing device.
REINFORCEMENT TYPES
 A rebar, or reinforcing bar is commonly used in
reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry
structures.
 It is usually formed from carbon steel, and is given
ridges for better mechanical anchoring into the
concrete.
 A singly reinforced beam is one in which the
concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile
face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is
designed to resist the tension.
 A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides
the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is
also reinforced near the compressive face to help
the concrete resist compression. The latter
reinforcement is called compression steel.

Type of Steel Bars

Generally there are two types of steel bars:
1.Mild steel bars
2.Deformed steel bars

 Mild steel bars:- Mild steel bars are used for tensile
stress of RCC (Reinforced cement concrete) slab
beams etc.
REINFORCEMENT TYPES
 Deformed steel bars: As deformed bars are rods of
steels provided with lugs, ribs or deformation on the
surface of bar, these bars minimize slippage in
concrete and increases the bond between the two
materials.
 The deformation should be spaced along the bar at
substantially uniform distances.
 TMT bars(thermo mechanically treated bars):
thermo mechanically treated bars are high strength
deformed steel bars used in reinforced cement
concrete(rcc)
 TMT bars are latest production in ms steel bars and
have superior properties such as strength, ductilty,
welding ability, bending ability and highest quality
standards at international level.
 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars: Deterioration of
reinforced concrete caused by corrosion of the
carbon steel reinforcing bars (rebars) is a worldwide
problem.
 inherently good corrosion resistance.
 Reduced life cycle cost for concrete structures
 capable of withstanding shipping, handling, bending.
INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
 Portal Frame: Portal Frames are generally low-rise
structures comprising columns and horizontally or
pitched rafters connected by moment-resisting
connections.
 This form provides continous frame & is stable in
structure along with providing clear span.
 Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional
rigid frames that have the basic characteristics of a
rigid joint between column and beam.
 The main objective of this form of design is to
reduce bending moment in the beam, which allows
the frame to act as one structural unit.
 Uses: Industrial, Storage, Retail & Commercial
 To a maximum of 60m of span.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

 Effective clear span

 Quality & Grade of steel
 Framed Dimensions
 INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
 Pitched Roof symmetrical Portal Frame: The
most commonly used system of frame.
 Portal Frame with Mezzanine floor: Office
accommodation is often provided within a portal
frame structure using a partial width mezzanine
floor.
 Mono Pitch Portal Frame: A mono pitch portal
frame is usually chosen for small spans.

 Curved Rafter Portal Frame:

 Cellular beam Portal Frame: Used for aesthetic

Portal Frame with Mezzanine floor reasons or when providing longs.

Portal Frame with Mezzanine floor Mono Pitched Portal frame Cellular beam Portal frame
INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION
NORTH LIGHT TRUSS

 Traditionally used for short spans in Industrial

workshops & similar buildings.
 They allow maximum benefit to be gained from
natural lighting by the use of Glazing on the
steeper side.
 Pitch generally faces North or North-East to reduce
solar gain.
 Reduces the requirement of artificial lighting system
& risk of overheating.
 It allows maximum solar gin & maximum water run
off.

Detail at Ridge Detail at Gutter/Valley Foundation Deatil

PREFABRICATION Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components
of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing
site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-
assemblies to the construction site where the
structure is to be located structure is to be located.
ADVANTAGES

 Mass production is easier and quick.

 Protected and controlled production environment
 Potential for lower production costs and other cost
savings.
 Ensures high degree of Safety.
 High quality product.
 Labor related savings.
 Savings in time.
 Overall efficiency is greatly increased.

DISADVANTAGES
 Careful handling of prefabricated components.
 Attention has to be paid to the strength and
corrosion-resistance of the joining of prefabricated
sections to avoid failure of the joint.
 Similarly, leaks can form at joints in prefabricated
components.
PREFABRICATION MATERIALS:
 Concrete,
 Steel,
 Treated wood,
 Aluminum,
 Cellular concrete,
 Light weight concrete elements,
 Ceramic products, etc.

OPEN PRE-FAB SYSTEM

 This system is based on the use of the basic
structural elements to form whole or part of a
building.
 Pre stressed/reinforced concrete slabs,
 Reinforced/pre stressed concrete beams,
 Reinforced/pre stressed concrete columns,
 Precast lintels and chajjas, etc.

CATEGORIES
1.Partial prefab open system
2.Full prefab open system
PREFABRICATION
PARTIAL OPEN PREFAB
 This system basically emphasizes the use of
precast roofing and flooring components and other
minor elements
 Flooring components & elements like lintels,
chajjas, kitchen sills in conventional building
construction .

FULL OPEN PREFAB

 In this system almost all the structural components
are Prefabricated .
 The filler walls may be of bricks or any other local
material.

LARGE PANEL PREFAB SYSTEM:

 This system is based on the use of large prefab
components.
 The components such as Precast concrete large
panels for walls, floors, roofs, balconies, staircase,
etc. The casting of the components could be at the
site or
 off the site.
PREFABRICATION
CATEGORIES:
 Wall Systems
 Precast Floors
 Box type construction
 Staircase

JOINTS:
 Welding if cleats or projecting steel.
 Overlapping reinforcement, loops and linking
steel grouted by concrete.
 Reinforced concrete ties all round a slab.
 Prestressing.
 Epoxy grouting.
 Bolts and nuts connection,and
 A combination of the above.
 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES OF DAMPNESS
• Structural dampness is the presence of
unwanted moisture in the structure of a
building, either the result of intrusion from
outside or condensation from within the
structure.
• A high proportion of damp problems in
buildings are caused by condensation, rain
penetration or rising damp.

CAUSES
 Chemical reactions with building materials and
components can cause, for example,
structural fasteners, wiring, metal roofing and
conditioning coils to corrode and flooring or
Growth of Moulds Rainwater leaks in roofing adhesives to fail.
Roof parapet  Water-soluble building materials (e.g., gypsum
board) can return to solution.
 Wooden materials can warp, swell or rot.
 Brick or concrete can be damaged during
freeze-thaw cycles and by sub-surface salt
deposition.
 Paints and varnishes can be damaged.
 The insulating value (R-value) of thermal
Corrosion in steel Concrete blistering insulation can be reduced.
 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES FOR DAMPNESS

A list of various systems used to arrest water penetration in the external walls for specific reasons is given below:

Sr. No. Reason Waterproofing system/ Materials

1 Cracks in the walls Polymer Modified Mortars / Pastes

2 Joints & Separation gaps Polymer Modified Mortar and sealants

3 Penetrating Dampness Impregnation system

4 Rising Dampness Injection system with siliconate materials

5 Honeycomb structures Flaring mortars / Crystalline system

6 Rain water penetration External Wall Coating

DEFECTS DUE TO APPLIED DIAGONAL CRACKS
FORCES
 Known as settlement, can happen
 due to “volume changes in clay soils due to
fluctuation in their water content, increased
pressure on a portion of the foundation.
 If the soil under the footing cannot stand the
compression force from the weight of the
foundation and house/building, then the
structure will sink and any adjacent walls that
are adequately supported will resist this
movement.

SURFACE CRACKS
• This type of cracking often occurs in freshly
placed concrete due to rapid evaporation of
moisture from the concrete surface and is
commonly referred to as plastic-shrinkage
cracking.
• This can occur at any time due to an
unfavorable combination of temperature, low
humidity and wind.
DEFECTS DUE TO APPLIED REMEDY:
FORCES
• Mix should be homogeneous .
• Avoid overheating the fresh mix during cold
weather.
• Reduce time between placing and start of
curing.
• Min. evaporation in the first few hours after
placing and finishing

CRCKS IN SLAB:
 Shrinkage cracks in a slab -: are unlikely to
be of any structural concern but can be a
source of water entry or radon entry in
buildings and may form a tripping hazard

REMEDY:
 Water proofing concrete should be used .
 Slab should be damp less .
 Provide adequate site preparation .