Research Methodology

Methods and Techniques

Spring Semester 1398

EE-Dep, FoE , Kabul University

Prof. Mohammad Homayoun Rasuli

 Overview
1. Research Methodology: An Introduction
2. Defining the Research Problem
3. Research Design
4. Sampling Design
5. Measurement and Scaling Techniques
6. Methods of Data Collection
7. Processing and Analysis of Data
8. Sampling Fundamentals
9. Testing of Hypothesis-I (Parametric or Standard Tests of Hypothesis)
10. Chi-square test
11. Analysis of Variance and Covariance
12. Testing of Hypothesis –II (Nonparametric or Distribution -free test)
13. Multivariate Analysis Techniques)
14. Interpretation and Report Writing
15. The Computer : Its Role in Research
1-Research Methodology: An Introduction
• Meaning of Research
• Objectives of Research
• Motivation in Research
• Types of Research
• Research Approaches
• Significance of Research
• Research Methods versus Methodology
• Research and Scientific Research
• Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
• Research Process
• Criteria of Good Research
 The word of research
Search, Re-search, Research
• The man from earliest time : sought to answers to
his problems acquiring knowledge through the
following methods:
1. Authority
2. Tradition
3. Experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Inductive reasoning
6. Scientific method
 Meaning of Research
• Search for facts;
• Answers to questions;
• Solutions to problems
• Search for knowledge.
• Research is a systematic search for an answer to a
question or a solution to a problem
• Research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (exploratory or formularize research
studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (known as descriptive
research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else (known
as diagnostic research);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Need for Research
• Extension of knowledge
• Bring to light information that might never be
discovered during the ordinary course of life
• Establish generalizations and general laws
which contributes to theory building
• Verify and test the existing facts and theories
• Initiate, formulate, deflect, and
 Need for Research (cont.)
• Analyze interrelationships between variables
and to derive causal explanations
• Find solutions to problems
• Develop new tools, concepts and theories
• Aid in planning and contributes to national
development
• Disseminate research findings to create
awareness of current situations and problems
 Need for Research (cont.)
• Formulate strategies and policies
• Brings prestige to the person and the
institution
• Promote progress of the society
 Motivation in Research
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability
• Desire to understand casual relationships.
• Direction from government.
• Employment Conditions.
• Curiosity about new things.
• Social thinking and awakening.
 Types of Research
• Descriptive Research : Descriptive research includes
surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
This method is used mostly in social science and
business. The main characteristic of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
Methods used: All kinds of survey; Comparison; and
correlation
Examples: frequency of shopping, preference of people
 Types of Research (cont.)
• Analytical Research: In analytical research, on
the other hand, the researcher has to use facts
or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 Types of Research (cont.)
• Applied Research: Applied (or action) research aims at
finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization. (Exp.
Marketing research, evaluation research…)
• Fundamental Research: Also called basic or pure
research, is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory. (Exp. Human behavior
research) Basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and
thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge.
 Types of Research (cont.)
• Quantitative : Quantitative research is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount.
• Qualitative : Qualitative research is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior
(i.e., why people think or do certain things),
 Types of Research (cont.)
• Conceptual Research: Conceptual research is that
related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical Research: Empirical (experimental)
research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is
data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. In ER, researcher propose a working
hypothesis and then he should proof or disproof the
hypothesis.
 Types of Research (cont.)
• Some Other Types of Research: All other types of
research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or
the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of
some other similar factor. Such as one-time research or
longitudinal research. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be
carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow
case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the
basic causal relations.
 Research Approach
• Quantitative Approach: It involves generation
of data in quantitative form.
– Inferential: Here a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.
– experimental :
– simulation approaches :
• Qualitative Research:
 Research Approach (cont.)
• Qualitative Research: It concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behavior. Research in such a situation is a
function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
Such an approach to research generates results
either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group
interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
 Significance of Research
Doubt is often better than overconfidence, it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention

• Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in

our economic system
• Research has its special significance in solving various operational
and planning problems of business and industry
• Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
• To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis,
research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in
the social structure;
• To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a
source of livelihood;
• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new
ideas and insights;
 Significance of Research (cont.)
• To literary men and women, research may mean the development of
new styles and creative work;
• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations
of new theories.
• An outlet for new ideas and insights to philosophers and thinkers.
• For the development of new styles and creative work to literary
persons.
• For the generalizations of new theories to analysis and intellectuals.
• For research scholars: it is a way to attain a high position in the
social structure.
• A source of livelihood to professionals in research methodology.
Research Methods versus Methodology
Research Process
 Good Research Criteria
1. Clearly defined purpose
2. Sufficient detail research procedure
3. Carefully planned to yield results that are as objective
as possible.
4. Complete report and estimate their effects upon the
findings.
5. Adequate analysis of data and the methods of analysis
used should be appropriate.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the
data of the research .
7. Greater confidence in research
 2-Defining the Research Problem
• To define a problem correctly, a researcher must
know: what a problem is?
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has
some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of
action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to
attain.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a
researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the
difficulty pertains.
 Selecting the Problem
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of
an average researcher.
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar
and feasible
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and
the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the
time factor.
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a
preliminary study (but not necessary).
 Techniques involved in Defining
Research Problem
a. Statement of the problem in a general way
(e.g. why power losses is higher in
Afghanistan than Japan) and narrow your idea
b. Understanding the nature of the problem:
c. Surveying the available literature:
d. Developing the ideas through discussions
e. Rephrasing the research problem:
 3. Research Design
Meaning of Research Design: The next step is design the
research project. 5W2H
the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
The overall research design can be split into :
i. the sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
ii. the observational design which relates to the conditions
under which the observations are to be made;
iii. the statistical design which concerns with the question of
how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analysed; and the
operational design which deals with the techniques by
which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
 Features of a Good Design
Good design involves following factors:
• the means of obtaining information;
• the availability and skills of the researcher and
his staff, if any;
• the objective of the problem to be studied;
• the nature of the problem to be studied; and
• the availability of time and money for the
research work.
 Important Concepts Relating to
Research Design
1. Dependent and Independent Variables
2. Extraneous variables
3. Control
4. Confounded relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing
research
7. Experimental and control group
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10. Experimental units