Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Fluid Statics
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Determine the pressure at various locations in a
fluid at rest
• Explain the concept of manometers and apply
appropriate equations to determine pressure
• Calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plan
or curved submerged surface
• Calculate the buoyant force and discuss the
stability of floating or submerged objects
ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

Pressure at a Point
The term pressure is used to indicate the normal
force per unit area at a given point acting on a given
plane within the fluid mass of interest.
How does the pressure at a point vary with

orientation of the plane passing through the
point?
To answer this question, consider the free body

diagram, that was obtained by removing a small
triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary
location within a fluid mass.

Pressure at a Point
Wedged Shaped
Fluid Mass
Where ps , py , and pz are the average pressures on the faces

 and  are the fluid specific weight and desnsity
and ay , az the accelerations in y and z -directions.

Pressure at a Point: Analysis
• No shearing stresses present in the fluid.
• For simplicity the forces in x-direction are not
shown.
• External forces acting on the fluid are due to
pressure and the weight.
• To make the analysis general, allow the fluid
element to have accelerated motion. The
assumption of zero shearing stresses will still be
valid as long as the fluid element moves as a
rigid body.

The equations of motion (Newton’s second law, F = ma)
in the y and z directions are:
 x y z
 Fy  p y x z  ps x s sin    ay
2
 x y z  x y z
 Fz  pz x y  ps x s cos     az
2 2
It follows from the geometry that

 y   s cos   z   s sin 
Where ps, py, and pz are the average pressures on the

faces, γ and ρ are the fluid specific weight and density
and ay, az the accelerations.
The equations of motion can be rewritten as
y
p y  ps   a y
2
z
p z  ps  (  a z   )
2
Since we are really interested in what is happening at a
point, we take the limits as δx, δy, and δz approach zero
(while maintaining the angle θ )
p y  ps p z  ps
or
p y  p z  ps

Pressure at a Point: Pascal’s Law
p1xs
p2xs psxs
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Ps  Py  Pz
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in

motion, is independent of direction as long as there
is no shearing stresses present. This important
result is known as Pascal’s Law.
Basic Equation for Pressure Field
How does the pressure vary in a fluid or from point
to point when no shear stresses are present?
Let the pressure at the center

of the element be designated
as p. The average pressure
on the various faces can be
expressed in terms of p and
its derivatives.
Pressure Field Equation
The resultant surface forces in the y-direction:
 p y   p y  p
 Fy   p    x z   p    x z    x y z
 y 2   y 2  y
Similarly, the resultant surface forces in the x and z-dire

p p
 Fx    x y z  Fz    x y z
x z
The resultant surface forces acting on the element in
vector form: ˆ
 Fs   Fxiˆ   Fy ˆj   Fz k
 p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ 
 Fs    i  j  k   x y z
 x y z 
Pressure Field Equation
The “del” vector operator or gradient is the following :
  ˆ   ˆ   ˆ
   i j k
x y z
p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ
Then, i j  k  p
x y z
Now, rewriting the surface force equation, we obtain the
following: F s
 p
 x y z
Now, we return the body forces, and we will only
consider weight:
 W kˆ    x y z kˆ

Pressure Field Equations
Newton’s Second Law, applied to the fluid element:
 F   m a
δm is the mass of the fluid element, and a is acceleration.
Then summing the surface forces and the body forces:

 F   F   W kˆ   m a
s
p  x y z    x y z kˆ    x y z a
p   kˆ   a
This is the general equation of motion for a fluid in which
there is no shearing stresses.
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
p   kˆ   a  p   kˆ  0
0
In components form
p p p
0 0  
x y z
The equations show that the pressure does not depend
on x or y.
dp
     g
dz
This is the fundamental equation for fluids at rest. It is

valid for fluids with constant specific weight, such as
liquids, as well as fluids whose specific weight may vary
with elevation, such as air or other gases.
Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids
The variation in g is negligible. For liquids the variation
in ρ is negligible over large vertical distance, thus most
liquids will be considered incompressible.
We can immediately integrate since γ is a constant:
p2 z2
 dp    dz
p1 z1
p2  p1    z2  z1 
p1  p2    z2  z1    h
p1  p2   h
This type of pressure distribution (varies linearly with

depth) is commonly called a hydrostatic distribution.
p1  p2   h
p1  p2
h

h is known as the pressure head. It is the height of a

column of fluid of specific weight γ required to give a
pressure difference p1- p2.

When one works with liquids

there is often a free surface
and it is convenient to use this
surface as a reference plane.
The reference pressure po
would correspond to the
pressure acting on the free
surface (atmospheric pressure)
The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

given by
p   h  p0
The pressure in a homogenous, incompressible fluid at
rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some
reference and is not influenced by the size or shape of the
container.
The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

given by
p   h  p0
Application: Transmission of Fluid Pressure
• Mechanical advantage can be gained with equality of

pressures.
• A small force applied at the small piston is used to develop a
large force at the large piston.
• Mechanical force is applied through jacks action or
compressed air for example.
A2
F2  F1
A1
Application: Transmission of Fluid Pressure
Hydraulic lift Hydraulic jack

Hydrostatic Condition: Compressible Fluids
Gases such as air, oxygen and nitrogen being
compressible, we must consider the variation of density
in the hydrostatic equation:
dp
     g
dz
The equation of state for an ideal gas is p   RT
dp gp

dz RT
and by separating variables
p2 z
dp p2 g 2 dz
p p  ln p1   R z T
1 1

Atmosphere layers

Standard Atmosphere
• One would like to have measurements of pressure
versus altitude over the specific range for the specific
conditions (temperature, reference pressure).
• This type of information is usually not available. Thus
a standard atmosphere has been determined.
• The concept of standard atmosphere was developed in
the 1920s.
• The currently accepted standard atmosphere is based
on a report published in 1962 and updated in 1976.
• The U.S. standard atmosphere is an idealized
presentation of middle-latitude, year-round mean
conditions of the earth’s atmosphere.

Standard Atmosphere
The below figure shows the temperature profile for the
U.S. standard atmosphere.
Standard Atmosphere is used in

the design of aircraft, missiles
and spacecraft.
Stratosphere:
Isothermal, T = To
Troposphere:
Linear Variation, T = Ta - bz

Standard Atmosphere

U.S. Standard Atmosphere: Troposphere
p2 z2
dp p2 g dz
Starting from, p p  ln p1   R z T
1 1
For the troposphere, which extends to an altitude 11 km

T  Ta  b z
β is known as the lapse rate, 0.00650 K/m, and Ta is the
temperature at sea level, 288.15 K.
g / Rb
 bz 
p  pa 1  
 Ta 
pa is the pressure at sea level, 101.33 kPa, R is the gas

constant, 286.9 J/kg.K
U.S. Standard Atmosphere: Contrails
At the outer edge
of troposphere,
where the
temperature is
-56.5oC, the
absolute pressure
is 23 kPa.
The main combustion products of hydrocarbon fuels

are CO2 and water vapor. At high altitudes this water
vapor emerges into a cold environment. The vapor then
condenses into tiny water droplets and/or deposits into
ice.
U.S. Standard Atmosphere: Stratosphere
p2 z2
dp p2 g dz
Starting from,
p p  ln p1   R z T
1 1
For the stratosphere, the temperature has a constant value

To over the range z1 to z2 (isothermal conditions), it then
follows
 g  z2  z1  
p2  p1 exp   
 RTo 
This equation provide the desired pressure-elevation

relationship for an isothermal layer.

Measurement of Pressure
The pressure at a point is designated as either an
Absolute Pressure: Pressure measured relative to a
perfect vacuum (absolute zero pressure). or
Gage Pressure: Pressure measured relative to
local atmospheric pressure.
• A gage pressure of zero corresponds to a
pressure that is at local atmospheric pressure.
• Absolute pressure is always positive.
• Gage pressure can be either negative or positive.
• Negative gage pressure is known as a vacuum or
suction.
Measurement of Pressure :Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures

Measurement of Pressure : Barometers
The measurement of atmospheric

pressure is usually accomplished with
a mercury barometer.
Evangelista Torricelli
(1608-1647)
patm   h  pvapor For Patm =101.3 kPa

10.4 m of H20
Often pvapor is very small, 76 cm of Hg
0.16 N/m2 at 20°C, thus:
patm   h
Measurement of Pressure: Manometry
A standard technique for measuring pressure
involves use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes are called Manometry. Pressure
measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers.
The three common types of manometers are
1. The Piezometer Tube
2. The U-Tube Manometer
3. The Inclined Tube Manometer
The fundamental equation for manometers is
p   h  p0
since they involve columns of fluid at rest.
Measurement of Pressure: Piezometer Tube
po
The simplest type of manometer
consists of a vertical tube, open
at the top, and attached to the
container in which the pressure
is desired.
pA   h1
Disadvantages:
1)The pressure in the container has to be greater than
atmospheric pressure. 2) Pressure must be relatively
small to maintain a small column of fluid. 3) The
measurement of pressure must be of a liquid.
Measurement of Pressure: U-Tube Manometer
The fluid in the

manometer is
known as the
gage fluid.
Then the equation for the pressure in the container is

pA   2 h2  1h1
If the fluid in the container is a gas, then the fluid 1
terms can be ignored:
pA   2 h2
Measurement of Pressure: Differential
U-Tube Manometer
Used to measure the difference in pressure between
two containers or two points in a given system.
Moving from left to right:

pA   1h1   2 h2   3h3  pB
pA  pB   2 h2   3h3   1h1
Differential U-Tube Manometer
Final notes:
• Capillarity due to surface tension at the various fluid
interfaces are not considered.
• Capillarity can play a role, but in many cases each
meniscus will cancel (ex: simple U-tube manometer).
• Making the Capillary rise negligible by using relative
large bore tubes.
• Temperature must be considered in very accurate
measurements, as the gage fluid properties can change.
• Common gage fluids are Hg and Water, some oils, and
must be immiscible.

Measurement of Pressure: Inclined-Tube Manometer
This type of manometer is used to measure small pressure
changes.
l2
h2
h2  l2 sin 
h2
 sin  
l2
pA   1h1   2l2 sin    3h3  pB
pA  pB   2l2 sin    3h3   1h1
If the pressure difference is between gases:
pA  pB   2l2 sin 
Measurement of Pressure: Mechanical and Electrical
Devices
(a) Liquid-filled Bourdon pressure gages for various pressure ranges.

(b) Internal elements of Bourdon gages. The “C-shaped” Bourdon
tube is shown on the left, and the “coiled spring” Bourdon tube for
high pressures of 1000 psi and above is shown on the right.

Devices
Pressure transducer which combines a linear variable

differential transformer (LVDT) with a Bourdon gage.

Devices
(a) Two different sized strain-

gage pressure transducers.
(a) Schematic diagram of the

P23XL transducer with the
dome removed

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
 When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid.
 Determination of these forces is important in the
design of tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic
structures.
 For fluids at rest, the force must be perpendicular
to the surface since there are no shearing stresses
present.
 The pressure will vary linearly with depth for
incompressible fluid at rest.

2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-

filled tank , the magnitude of the resultant force is
FR  pA where p   h
Where p is the uniform pressure on the bottom and A is
the area of the bottom.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: General Case
The origin O is at the
free Surface.
θ = angle the plane makes
with the free surface.
y is directed along the plane

surface.
A = area of the surface.
dA = differential area
of the surface.
dF = force acting on the

differential element.
C = centroid.
CP = center of Pressure

Then the force acting on the differential element
dF   h dA
Then the resultant force acting on the entire surface
FR    h dA    y sin  dA
A A
For constant γ and θ

FR   sin   y dA
A
The integral part is the first moment of area about the x-axis
 y dA  y A
A
c
Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A

FR   Ayc sin    hc A
FR   Ayc sin    hc A
where hc is the vertical

distance from the fluid
surface to the centroid of
the area.
The magnitude of the resultant force is independent of the
angle θ. It depends only on the specific weight of the
fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the
area below the surface.
“The
Moments of the Resultant Force must Equal the
Moment of the Distributed Pressure Force”
Moments about the x-axis:
FR yR   y dF   y  h dA   y  y sin  dA    sin  y 2 dA
A A A A
 sin   y 2 dA  y 2 dA
I xx I xc  Ayc2
yR  A
 A
 
 sin  yc A yc A yc A yc A
I xc
yR   yc
yc A
Ixx is the second moment of the area with respect to x-axis

I xc
yR   yc
yc A
The above figure shows that the resultant force does not
pass through the centroid but for nonhorizontal surfaces
is always below it.
Moments about the y-axis:
FR xR   x dF   x  h dA   x  y sin  dA    sin  xy dA
A A A A
 sin   xy dA  xy dA I xy I xyc  Axc yc

xR  A
 A
 
 sin  yc A yc A yc A yc A
I xyc
xR   xc
yc A
Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to x and y axes.

Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the
area.
yc  hc / sin 
I xyc
xR   xc yc will increase
yc A
• if depth of submergence,
I xc hc, increases
yR   yc
yc A • area is rotated so that
angle θ decreases, for a
given depth
The hydrostatic force on the right-hand side of the gate

acts closer to the centroid of the gate than the force on
the left-hand side.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Circular Surface
The 4-m diameter circular gate as shown in figure is
located in the inclined wall of a large reservoir
containing water. The gate is mounted on a shaft along
its horizontal diameter, and the water depth is 10 m
above the shaft. Determine (a) the magnitude and
location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the
water and (b) the moment that would have to be applied
to the shaft to open the gate.

Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Circular Surface

Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall
A graphical interpretation of the forces due to a fluid
acting on a plane area. The “volume” of fluid acting on
the wall is the pressure prism and equals the resultant
force acting on the wall.

Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall
The magnitude of the resultant
Volume force is equal to the volume of
the pressure prism.
1
FR    h  A
2
1
FR    h  bh 
2
The centroid is located along the vertical axis of
symmetry of the surface, and at a distance of h/3 above
the base.
b h
Location of CP will be  , 
2 3
Pressure Prism: Submerged Vertical Wall
Trapezoidal
The Resultant Force: break into two “volumes” Location of Resultant Force: “use sum of moments”
FR  F1  F2
FR yA  F1 y1  F2 y2
F1    h1  A
F2     h2  h1   A
1 y1 and y2 is the centroid location for the two
volumes where F1 and F2 are the resultant forces
2
A  b  h2  h1 
of the volumes.

Pressure Prism: Inclined Submerged Wall
For inclined plane surfaces the cross-section of the pressure prism is

trapezoidal. Therefore the methodology is the same as the last problem.
• The use of pressure prisms is convenient if the area is

rectangular, otherwise integration is needed.
• In that case we use the equations developed earlier.

Atmospheric Pressure on a Vertical Wall
Gage Pressure Analysis Absolute Pressure Analysis
The resultant force on the surface is due only to the

gage pressure of the liquid in contact with the surface -
the atmospheric pressure does not contribute to this
resultant.
Use of Pressure Prism Concept
A pressurized tank contains oil (SG=0.9) and has a
square, 0.6-m by 0.6-m plate bolted to its side. When
the pressure gage on the top of the tank reads 50 kPa,
what is the magnitude and location of FR on the
attached plate?

2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
The equations developed in Section 2.8 for the
magnitude and location of the resultant force acting on a
submerged surfaces only apply to plane surfaces.
However, many surfaces of interest (such as those
associated with dams, pipes and tanks) are nonplanar.
Although the resultant fluid force can be determined by
integration, as was done for the planar surfaces, that is
generally a rather tedious process and no simple, general
formulas can be developed. As an alternative approach,
we will consider the equilibrium of the fluid volume
enclosed by the curved surface of interest and the
horizontal and vertical projections of this surface.

Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
F1 and F2 is the hydrostatic force on

each planar face
FH and FV is the component of the
resultant force on the curved surface
W is the weight of the fluid volume
For the force system to be in equilibrium condition
Horizontal force  FH  F2
Vertical force  FV  F1  W
Resultant force
 FR   FH    FV 
2 2
The resultant force passing through O can be located by

summing of moments:
Y-axis: F1 x1  Wxc  FV xV
X-axis: F2 x2  FH xH

Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Curved Surface
A 1.8 m diameter drainage conduit is half full of water at
rest, as shown in figure. Determine the magnitude and line
of action of the resultant force that the water exerts on a
0.3 m length of the curved section BC of the conduit wall.
F1   hc A  (9800 N/m )(0.45 m)(0.27 m )  1191 N

3 2
3
(1/12)lR 2
hR   ( R / 2)  R and this force acts 0.3 m above C
( R / 2)(lR) 3
Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Curved Surface
W   V  (9800 N/m )( / 4  0.81 m )(0.3 m)  1870 N

3 2
and acts through the center of gravity of the mass of fluid, which is
located 0.39 m (4 R / 3 ) to the right of AC.
Therefore, to satisfy equilibrium
FH  F1  1191 N FV  W  1870 N
and the magnitude of the resultant force is
FR   FH    FV   1191 N   1870 N   2218 N
2 2 2 2

The pressure force is normal to the surface at each point,

but the differential area elements point in varying
directions because of the surface curvature. Therefore
differential force has to be integrated over area vector
element dA instead of integrating over an element dA.
The pressure force acting on the element of area, dA, is
dF   pdA   p ndA
ˆ
where the minus sign indicates that the force acts on the
area, in the direction opposite to the area normal. The
resultant force is given by
FR   pdA   p ndA
ˆ
A A
We can write FR  FRx iˆ  FRy ˆj  FRz kˆ

where FRx , FRy , and FRz are the components of FR in
the x, y, and z directions.
To evaluate the component of the force in a given
direction, take the dot product of the force with the unit
vector in the given direction.
FRx  FR . iˆ   dF . iˆ    pdAnˆ. iˆ    pdA cos     pdAx

A A Ax
Where dAx is the projection of dA on a plane

perpendicular to the x-axis, and the minus sign
indicates that the x components of the resultant force is
in the negative x direction.

Example
FRx  FR . iˆ   dF . iˆ    pdAnˆ. iˆ    pdA cos     pdA x    pdydz

A A Ax Ax
FRz  FR . kˆ   dF . kˆ    pdAnˆ. kˆ    pdA cos     pdA z    pdxdy

A A Ax Az

In any problem, the direction of the force component
can be determined by inspection, the use of vectors is
not necessary. In general, the magnitude of the
component of the resultant force in the l direction is
given by
FRl   pdA
Al
l
Where dAl is the projection of the area element dA on a

plane perpendicular to the l direction. This equation can
be used for the horizontal forces FRx and FRy .
The horizontal force and its location are the same as for
an imaginary vertical plane surface of the projected area.
FRz   pdA    gh dA    g dV
Az
z
Az
z
V
 g V
Where  gh dAz   gdV is the weight of a differential

cylinder of liquid above the element of surface area, dAz,
extending a distance h from the curved surface to the
free surface.
FV   hc A and FV   g V
The gate shown is hinged at O and has constant width,
w = 5 m. The equation of the surface is x = y2/a, where
a = 4 m. Find the magnitude of the force, Fa, required
to maintain the gate in equilibrium if the weight of the
gate is neglected.

The gate shown is hinged at O and has constant width,
w = 5 m. The equation of the surface is x = y2/a, where
a = 4 m. Find the magnitude of the force, Fa, required
to maintain the gate in equilibrium if the weight of the
gate is neglected.

Buoyancy: Archimedes’ Principle
When a stationary body is completely submerged in a
fluid or partially submerged, the resultant force acting
on the body is called buoyancy force.

Buoyancy: Archimedes’ Principle
Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:
FB  F2  F1  W
where F2  F1   (h2  h1 ) A
W    h2  h1  A  V 
Then, substituting:
FB   (h2  h1 ) A    h2  h1  A  V 
W is the weight of the shaded area Simplifying,
F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces
FB is the bouyant force the body exerts on the fluid
FB   V
The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or vertically upward
and is known as the Buoyant Force. The force is equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.
Buoyancy : Archimedes’ Principle
Find where the Buoyant Force Acts by Summing Moments:
Summing the Moments of the forces

FB yc  F2 y1  F1 y1  Wy2
V yc  VT y1   VT  V  y2
VT is the total volume of the
parallelpiped
The buoyant forces acts
through the centroid of the
displaced volume. This
location is known as the
.
center of buoyancy
Buoyancy and Flotation: Archimedes’ Principle
We can apply the same principles to floating objects:
If the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very small specific
weight (air), the centroid is simply that of the displaced volume,
and the buoyant force is as before.
If the specific weight varies in the fluid the buoyant force does not
pass through the centroid of the displaced volume, but through the
center of gravity of the displaced volume.
A spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m, weighs 8.5 kN,
and anchored to the seafloor with a cable. For this condition
what is the tension of the cable?
T  FB  W   V  W
and for seawater with   10.1 kN/m3 and V   d 3 / 6
T  1.785  104 N  0.850  104 N  9.35 kN
Buoyancy : Hydrometer
An instrument used to measure the specific gravity of
liquids, operates on the principle of buoyancy.
Battery Hydrometer Beer Hydrometer

Buoyancy : Hydrometer
The upper part, the stem, has a constant diameter. When placed in
pure water the S.G is marked to read 1.0. The force balance is
W  weight of the hydrometer
V  submerged volume below
the S.G  1.0 line
W   water V
   (a) W   x  V  Ah 
   (b)
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the stem. Equating these
two expressions V  H o  V  1 
h  1 
2
  1  
A  x  A  S.G x 
For a given hydrometer, V and A are fixed so that the quantity ∆h
is dependent only on the specific gravity S.Gx. Thus the stem can
be calibrated to read S.GX directly.
Stability : Submerged or Floating Object
 When a body submerged in a liquid, the eqilibrium
requires that the weight of the body acting through
its centre of gravity should be collinear with an
equal hydrostatic lift (buoyant force) acting through
the centre of buoyancy.
 In general, if the body is not homogeneous in its
distribution of mass over the entire volume, the
location of centre of gravity G does not coincide
with the centre of volume, i.e., the centre of
buoyancy B.
 Depending upon the relative locations of G and B, a
floating or submerged body attains three different
states of equilibrium.
Stability : Submerged Object
They are Stable Equilibrium or Unstable Equilibrium
or Neutral Equilibrium.
States of Equilibrium of a Submerged Body

Let us suppose that a body is given a small angular
displacement and then released.
Stable Equilibrium: If the body returns to its
original position by retaining the originally vertical
axis as vertical.
Unstable Equilibrium: If the body does not return to
its original position but moves further from it.
Neutral Equilibrium: If the body neither returns to
its original position nor increases its displacement
further, it will simply adopt its new position.

Stable Equilibrium: Consider a submerged body in
equilibrium whose centre of gravity is located below the
centre of buoyancy (Fig. a). If the body is tilted slightly
in any direction, the buoyant force and the weight
always produce a restoring couple trying to return the
body to its original position (Fig. b, c).

Unstable Equilibrium: On the other hand, if point G is
above point B (Fig. a), any disturbance from the
equilibrium position will create a destroying
(overturning) couple which will turn the body away
from its original position (b, c).

Neutral Equilibrium: When the centre of gravity G and
centre of buoyancy B coincides, the body will always
assume the same position in which it is placed (Fig) and
hence it is in neutral equilibrium.

Stability: Floating Object
Slightly more complicated as the location of the center
buoyancy can change:

The condition for angular stability of a floating body us a
little more complicated. This is because, when the body
undergoes an angular displacement about a horizontal
axis, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so
the centre of buoyancy moves relative to the body. As a
result stable equilibrium can be achieved, under certain
condition, even when G is above B.
The force of buoyancy FB is equal to the weight of the

body W. Centre of gravity G is above the centre of
buoyancy in the same vertical line (Refer next page for
figure).

Fig. b shows the situation after the body has undergone
a small angular displacement θ with respect to the
vertical axis. The centre of gravity G remains
unchanged relative to the body. During the movement,
the volume immersed on the right hand side increases
while that on the left hand side decreases. The centre of
buoyancy moves towards the right to its new position
B'.

Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is
always vertical) through B' intersects the axis BG (the old
vertical line containing the centre of gravity G and the old
centre of buoyancy B) at M. For small values of θ the
point M is practically constant in position and is known
as metacentre. For the body shown in Fig. (Slide 93), M
is above G, and the couple acting on the body in its
displaced position is a restoring couple which tends to
turn the body to its original position. If M were below G,
the couple would be an overturning couple and the
original equilibrium would have been unstable. When M
coincides with G, the body will assume its new position
without any further movement and thus will be in neutral
equilibrium.
Therefore, for a floating body, the stability is determined
not simply by the relative position of B and G, rather by
the relative position of M and G. The distance of
metacentre above G along the line BG is known as
metacentric height GM which can be written as
GM  BM  BG
GM > 0 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium
GM = 0 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium
GM < 0 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium

Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid Body
Motion
Governing Equation with no Shear (Rigid Body Motion):
p   kˆ   a
The equation in all three directions are the following:
p p p
  a   a     a
x y z
x y z
A general class of problems involving fluid motion in which

there are no shearing stresses occurs when a mass of fluid
undergoes rigid-body motion. For example, rigid body uniform
motion and rigid-body rotation.

Rigid Body Linear Motion
Consider, the case of an open container of liquid with a constant
acceleration a
p p p
 a 0  a    g  a 
x y z
x y z

The change in pressure between two closely spaced
points located at y, z, and y+dy, z+dz can be expressed as
p p
dp  dy  dz    a dy    g  a  dz
y z
y z
Along a line of constant pressure, dp=0. The slope of

this line is given by
dz a
 y
dy g a z
Along a free surface the pressure is constant and

the free surface will be inclined if ay≠ 0. In
addition, all lines of constant pressure will be
parallel to the free surface.
z
Linear acceleration
of a liquid with a
free surface
For the special circumstance in which ay= 0, az ≠ 0,
which corresponds to the mass of fluid accelerating in
the vertical direction. In this case the fluid surface will
be horizontal.
dz a
 y
0
dy ga z
p p
 0 and    g  a 
y z
z
For fluids of constant density the above equation shows

that the pressure will vary linearly with depth, but the
variation is due to the combined effects of gravity and
the externally induced acceleration   g  a  .
z


The rectangular tank is vented to the atmosphere and S.G of the
fuel is 0.65. During testing of the vehicle, the tank is subjected to a
constant linear acceleration, ay. Find (a) Determine an expression
that relates ay and the pressure at the transducer. (b) What is the
maximum acceleration that can occur before the fuel level drops
below the transducer?

Rigid - Body Rotation
A fluid contained in a tank rotates with a constant
angular velocity ω about an axis. The acceleration of a
fluid particle at a distance r from the axis of rotation is
to rω2, and the direction of acceleration is toward the
axis of rotation.

Pressure gradient in cylindrical coordinates
p 1 p p
p  eˆr  eˆ  eˆz
r r  z
Acceleration in cylindrical coordinates
a  r 2 eˆr  0 eˆ  0 eˆz

The general equation of motion for a fluid in which there is
no shearing stresses.
 p   eˆz   a
p p p
  r ;
2
 0;  
r  z
p p
dp  dr  dz   r dr   dz
2
r z
Along a surface of constant pressure, such as free
surface, dp=0. dz r 2

dr g
Integrating of this result gives the equation for surfaces of

constant pressure as r
2 2
z C
2g
Now, integrate to obtain the Pressure Variation:

The angular velocity, ω, of a rotating body or shaft can be
measured by attaching an open cylinder of liquid and measuring
with depth gauge the change in the fluid level, H – h0, caused by
the rotation of the fluid. Determine the relationship between this
change in fluid level and the angular velocity.

Linear acceleration of a liquid with a
free surface

Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

How does the pressure at a point vary with

To answer this question, consider the free body

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

Where ps , py , and pz are the average pressures on the faces

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

It follows from the geometry that

Where ps, py, and pz are the average pressures on the

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Ps  Py  Pz

The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in

Let the pressure at the center

Similarly, the resultant surface forces in the x and z-dire

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

This is the fundamental equation for fluids at rest. It is

This type of pressure distribution (varies linearly with

h is known as the pressure head. It is the height of a

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

When one works with liquids

The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is

• Mechanical advantage can be gained with equality of

Hydraulic lift Hydraulic jack

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

Standard Atmosphere is used in

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

For the troposphere, which extends to an altitude 11 km

pa is the pressure at sea level, 101.33 kPa, R is the gas

The main combustion products of hydrocarbon fuels

For the stratosphere, the temperature has a constant value

This equation provide the desired pressure-elevation

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

The measurement of atmospheric

patm   h  pvapor For Patm =101.3 kPa

The fluid in the

Then the equation for the pressure in the container is

Moving from left to right:

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

(a) Liquid-filled Bourdon pressure gages for various pressure ranges.

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

Pressure transducer which combines a linear variable

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

(a) Two different sized strain-

(a) Schematic diagram of the

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-

y is directed along the plane

dF = force acting on the

ME F212 Fluid Mechanics

For constant γ and θ

Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A

where hc is the vertical

Ixx is the second moment of the area with respect to x-axis

 sin   xy dA  xy dA I xy I xyc  Axc yc

Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to x and y axes.