ARCH 219 Landscape Design Course

ARCH 219 LANDSCAPE
DESIGN
Course content 2010-2011 Fall
This course consists of two parts; theory and practice

compiled from
INTRODUCTION TO LANDSCAPE DESIGN-John L. MOTLOCH (2001)
and
FROM CONCEPT TO FORM IN LANDSAPE DESIGN- Grant W. REID (2007)
LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND SITE ASSESSMENT: KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
PLANT SELECTION–Rick BATES PENN State University Department of
Horticulture
by
Prof. Dr. Nur Sözen
for
EUL Faculty of Architecture and Engineering
Department of Architecture
ARCH 219 LANDSCAPE
DESIGN
Theoretical part of the course
EUL Faculty of Architecture and Engineering

Department of Architecture
Compiled by
Prof. Dr Nur SÖZEN

2010-2011 Fall
What is landscape?
Landscape is everything surrounding us and
everywhere, place, entity and phenomenon we
can see, feel, sense, conceive and live in either
almost untouched (natural) or shaped mostly by
human (cultural).
What is landscape?
LANDSCAPE and/or environment
NATURAL CULTURAL
Untouched or Shaped by human activities
almost
untouched
National
parks,forests,
mountains, URBAN RURAL
deserts, rain
Buildings,streets,commer Farms, fields, holiday
forests, polar caps cial areas, parks,
Villages, summer houses,
gardens, squares,
highways, railways, airports,
bridges etc.
recreation areas, arche logical/
historical sites etc.
What is landscape
Natural Landscapes are created and shaped by natural processes
What is landscape
What is landscape
What is landscape
What is landscape
What is landscape
What is landscape
Cultural landscapes are altered or shaped by human
Urban landscapes
What is landscape
Urban landscapes
vegitecture
What is landscape
Urban landscapes
What is landscape
Cultural landscapes are altered or shaped by human
Rural landscapes
What is landscape
Rural landscapes: Agricultural
What is landscape
Rural landscapes: Transportation, vacation
Landscape is an integrated system
• Requires systematic and holistic approach in terms of
management, planning and design.
• Systems (wholes) consist of entities and relationships and
function accordingly.
• Landscape designers must manage, plan and design
landscape to optimize the health and productivity of
diverse physical, ecological and human systems.
• Landscape designers must aspire to manage, plan and
design people environment relations to promote
sustainability and regenerative capacity.
• Landscape management, planning and design must
integrate into the dynamic of systems operating under
dynamic equilibrium
• The science of chaos explains how eqilibrium
provide order in static and slowly changing
systems.
• This order is short lived and based on
fundamental randomness.
• Systems sooner or later move into dissipative
states.
• As aresult of this dissipation new states of
equilibrium emerge.
• Chaos explains the complexity including the
dynamics of natural and human systems.
• Landscape managers, planners and designers
must understand the equilibrium conditions.
• Sensitive designers towards chaos, complexity
and equilibrium issues can interpret this kind of
knowledge to create integrated, complex and
diverse landscapes.
• It must be clearly understood that “the nature of
nature is change”.
• In the traditional design approach we tried to
stop change through engineering instead of
integration with change through ecology.
•Planning and design decisions often fail to
integrate into larger environmental, human and
technological systems.
•This paradigm failed to synergize place, people
and technology.
•Also failed to provide a positive sense of place
(people connecting mentally with context) and
sense of community (feeling of connection with
others) or place specific sense of community
(people connecting to the place and others in that
place).
• The change in the landscape architecture
profession towards systems management
(managing the health and productivity systems
of the systems) in 1970s reemerged in 1980s as
sustainable development (synthesis of
conservation and development) and evolved into
regenerative planning and design (solutions
from system dynamics regenerate these
systems) in 1990s reconnecting people place
and other people
Through knowledge based design (synergy of
art and science) the designers can create
responsible humane places with strong identity
that promote:
• human interaction and involvement
• enrich human experience
• maximize quality of life
• improve ecological, physiological,
psychological health.
Landscape interpretation
• Landscape as nature: 18. Century romantic
movement considers landscape as wilderness
areas without people. Designers who follow this
view strongly focus on conserving, nurturing and
protecting the environment.
• Landscape as habitat: This view considers
landscape is home for human. Accordingly
quality of life is integrally linked to a healthy
habitat.
• Landscape as artifact: This anthrophomorphic
sees landscape as an entity created by people;
people have conquered nature and reshaped it to
their purposes because human is seen as
ecologically dominant and superior to nature. This
view is a short-term, ego-driven being unaware and
insensitive to the the problems created by its
implementation.
• Landscape as system: In this holistic view landscape
consists of interdependent subsystems and underlying
processes. It started as a reaction o reductive Newtonian
science. Since 1930 it accepts science of relativity as the view
of reality. Emhasize the interelations of landscape elements
instead of elements. People and landscape are expressions
of systemic oneness. Contrasting the previous view this
approach promotes sustainable, culturally relevant
landscapes, integrates form and function with landscape
dynamics, and maximizes long term health and productivity of
the physical and cultural landscape. Designers with this
viewpoint consider landscape design as the management of
the systems.
Landscape as a system: A building is an element within the urban

system but it is also an integral part of a spatial system and it is a
part of a climatic system and can be designed for optimal energy
and water exchange with landscape. This approach leads to
systems sensitive regional/urban planning, architecture and
landscape architecture.
• Landscape as problem: This view sees landscape (with its
natural and man-made elements) as a situation needing
correction. All the environmental problems are seen as
evidences of this problematic landscapes. This view is
promoted by education and publicity of 1970s adressing
landscape design as functional, infrastructural, behavioral, or
aesthetic problem solving. Landscape designers apply
professional skills, scientific knowledge and aesthetic
sensitivity to the correction of environmental ills. If applied
with a short-term perpective resulting landscapes may
become prolematic than the original condition. This approach
may also create boring landscapes and fail to provide the
enrichment necessary to sustain the human spirit and
promote psychological health.
• Landscape as wealth: It is based on that people “own”
land. Primary value of land is its economic worth;
everything else is secondary to investment potential.
This real-estate approach is based on “highest and best
use”. This materialistic 20th Century view makes
decisions in accordance with economic value instead of
carrying capacity and have profound impact on
landscape efficiency and sustainability. This approach
served well during the period of resource abundance
(e.g. exploitation of fossil fuels). But it is useless during
resource scarcity which we are experiencing.
Landscape as wealth:This
abstract, geographic view
translates landscapes into
economic units such as square
metre. It considers everything
that influence the market value.
Accesibility, availability and
capacity of support systems and
infrastructure are more important
than the physical characteistics.
Sense of place, context and
even the
People present are important
(e.g. Where the rich and poor
congregate affect the status and
economicvalue. Image is a
valued economic resource.
• Landscape as ideology: Landscape is sen as a
symbol of values, ideals, aspirations, hopes and
dreams of a culture; it is the physical expression
of culture. In homogenous and slow changing
cultures this can produce landscapes with strong
and integrated sense. In diverse societies of
contemporary settlements the result is
landscapes in which elements relate poorly to
one another and lack a strong sense. The result
is very often chaotic and psychologically
unhealthy landscapes.
• Landscape as history: In this view eveything is positioned
in time and sequence. Landscape is layers of history, it is
the physical record of past cultures and ecological
processes structured in time.
• Landscape as place: This approach focuses on sensual
gestalt (sound, smell, tactile, feel, flavor and ambiance)
and ability of space to be remembered over time. Immense
variety, uniqueness, individuality of places are important.
This view focuses on gestalt rather than on
elements.Landscapes generated by this view reflact
landscape characteristics and tend to be visually coherent,
exciting and sensually rewarding environments.
• Landscape as aesthetic: Emphasizes artistic and visual
qualities of landscape features; it interprets visual forms
on the basis of art language such as line, form, color,
texture, rhythm, proportion, balance, symmetry,
harmony, tesion, unity, variety etc. The landscape is
seen as an object and endowed with high viewing value.
Whether they function properly or high cultural meaning
is of little importance. The manner in which we manage,
plan and design landscape is profoundly affected by how
we see it which is based on our world view and this
affects the potentials we see or don’t see and also the
problems we solve.
Crucial issues in landscape
design
• Development of human-systems foundation:
Value systems, interdisciplinary planning and
design,integrating the four foundations of
landcape design; aesthetic, technological, natural
and human systems
• Reconnecting people to place: Embracing
participatory processes, promoting place specific
sense of community
• Realizing the potential of digital technology:
Design curricula, Construction curricula
Landscape processes
Landscapes are expressions of ongoing processes and environmental remains
left behind by ecological and cultural forces
• Ecological forces: Geological processes (tectonic,

hydrologic, glacial, wind and weathering); Soil-forming
processes; biologic processes. These processes
interact to form ecosystems
• Landscape form and pattern recognition provides
valuable information for designers about the forces that
are responsible of the forms and patterns.
• Geologic processes are predictable sequences of
events powered by geological forces.
Landscape processes
Uplifted landscape-positive landform
Erosional landscape-negative landform

Landscape processes
Geologic processes: Tectonics
Young mountains
Old mountains
Landscape processes
Geologic processes: Hydrology
Sinkhole
Karstic pool
Landscape processes
Geologic proceses:Hydrology
Stream erosion
Landscape processes
Stream aging
Landscape processes
Gelogic processes: Hydrology
Direction of stream erosion
o
Landscape processes
Variation in stream
pattern
Variation in stream pattern

Landscape processes
Geologic process: Glacial forces
Hanging valleys and waterfalls
Drumlin
Landscape processes
Geologic processes: Glacial forces
Drumlins
Landscape processes
Geologic forces: Wind
Saltation transfer of sand by wind
Dune formation
Landscape processes
Geologic processes: Weathering
Landscape processes
Soil forming processes
Landscape processes
Biologic processes
Earth ispowered by energy:

• Tectonic processes are povered by thermonuclear energy
as the core of the earth decays radioactively.
• Surface processes are powered primarely by solar energy
(solar radiation stored in wood, coal and petroleum).
• Biological systems (negentropic) increase the stored
energy for later use (convertion of solar energy by plants
through photosynthesis).
• Energy is transmitted through food chain and web of life
(biotic aspect).
Nonliving (abiotic) and living (biotic) components interact to
form ecosystems in which parts relate holistically.
Landscape processes
Biologic processes
Early and late succesional ecosystems

Available resources and technology
Land and landform
• Land is solid part of earth’s surface; its 3-D relief

is called topography or land form. This form
develops as ecological, cultural and
technological forces operate, over time, on the
earth’s surface. Severity of forces and resistance
of surface influence the form.
• Each physiographic region has its own set of
ecological forces and materials, over time these
promote the physical character of that region.
Land and landform
Terraced landform Rolling landform

Land and landform: How to communicate landform
Generally 2-D graphic techniques are used to represent 3-

D landforms.
Landform in plan
– Hachures (lines drawn in the direction of steepest
slope connecting consecutive undrawn lines of
elevation) are powerful drawing tools to express
landforms in 2-D plans. Hachure lines are usually
evenly spaced, but this spacing can change to reflect
the amount of sunlight that falls on the surface (a
combination of slope angle and orientation, and the
direction of the sun) producing a greater 3-D effect.
Land and landform: How to communicate landform
Hachure lines
Land and landforms: How to communicate landform
The most common way to represent landform on

a 2-D plan is the contour plan.
-Contour lines are lines of equal elevation
consecutive lines on the plan have a consistentvertical
separation, referred as to contour interval. To
understand a contour or topographic map typical
landforms and their contour signatures must be properly
understod.
Land and landforms: How to communicate landforms
Contour lines Ridge and valley structure

Land and landform: How to communicate landforms
Landform in section and profile

– Section and profile : A landform can also
be in 2-D by imagining that it is cut through
and then it is drawn the side showing the
vertical configuration. When the drawing
shows only the existing and proposed form it
is called section, and it is called profile when
itoverlays both existing and proposed
conditions. These are generally scaled
drawings.
Land and landform
Landform in section
Land and landform
Landform manupilation:
When representing landform manupilations existing
existing contour lines must be indicated with dashed
and proposed ones with solid lines. Existing contour
lines are shown with their entire length, but proposed
ones are drawn only where they deviate from the
existing conditions.
Grading is the general term used to refer to
modifications to existing landform and is performed
to provide drainage, to create visual effects etc.
Land and landforms: How to communicate landforms
Landform manupilation: cut and fill

Slope:
The amount of incline of a surface is referred to as its
slope. There are two methods for quantifying the slopes:
-According to ratio method, slope steepness is the ratio of
horizontal dimension to vertical elevation difference 3:1,
2:1, 1:1 etc.
-The percentage method describes slopes as a
percentage; determined by dividing the difference in
vertical elevation by the horizontal distance and then
converting this decimal to a percentage.
Slope
Land and landform: Design
Landform issues must necessarily be fully considered in

landscape design: Line and enclosure, slope conditions,
drainage characteristics, and comfort are among the major
considerations.
Landform as line:
Perceptual efefcts of a landform are affected by its line
characteristics; angular line produces feeling of energy,
power and boldness whereas sinuous line evokes a sense
of calmness, passivity and restfulness.
Land and landform:Design
Architectonic versus naturalistic form

Landform as enclosure:
Flat, level landscapes give the feeling of expansiveness. To
compose a space in these landscapes the designer can
reshape the land or manupilate the landform with plants, walls
or other design elements. As landform rises above the eye level
it blocks the vision and the space becomes enclosed.
Grain and enclosure

Land and form: Design
Ridgelines and military crests
Landscape grain
Site and design slopes:

Existing site slopes have major implications in terms of
allowable land uses, densities and site impacts associated
with development.
Landform
modification as
a factor of
slope
Landform, drainage and infrastructure:

Ridges are topographic divides that seperate the landscape into
a series of drainage areas called watersheds; water flows away
from ridges and concentrates its flow in swales. Watersheds are
important units for environmental management and land use
planning.
Watersheds and waterflow
In most landscapes water is the primary ecological and

erosional force. Managing this force as well as the resulting
stream erosion and soil loss is best achieved with proper
watershed management.
Land use planning determines land use and density of
develoment and most uses must be aided by support
systems called utilities or infrastructure which include
circulation, power, stormwater, and waste water
management, communication etc.
Infrastructural systems consist of two basic types: Gravity
flow systems and pressure flow systems.
Land and landform: design
Gravity flow systems including storm and sanitary sewerage

systems are tied directly to topography. They depend on
topographic differences for their motive force and their form
must closely relate to landform.
Pressure flow systems including networks for potable water,
electricity, natural gas, communication, transportation etc. Are
freed from constraints of topography.
At the site scale the designer wants surface water to flow around
rather than through buildings and site-use areas. Grading a site
to affect site drainage is a major design concern. It must be
considered at the early stage and throughout the design
process.
Gravity flow system

Landform and comfort:

Comfort is the sensation resulting from a preferred
combination of temperature, radiated energy, humidity and
wind speed.
Comfort is largely determined by climate: At the regional
scale it is called macroclimate; at the land planning scale
mezzoclimate and at the site scale microclimate. The
shape of land significantly affects local conditions and
comfort, primarily through its effect on seasonal incoming
solar radiation (insolation) and airflow.
Slope aspect or slope orientation (slope and direction of

land surface):
Combined with vertical angle and planar direction of the sun this
orientation determines the relative amount of incoming solar
radiation incident on the ground surface at any given time. This
information is useful when considering time-specific building
and site uses. The designer avoids high use activities in areas
subject to large amounts of afternoon summer sun (the area is
already over heated).
In winter solar radiation is desirable; the designer searches
sunny areas to locate the activities. On slopes that turn their
back to the sun vertical elements further reduce solar energy.
On slopes facing the sun the same elements reflect more
energy into these areas creating heat-sinks.
Slope aspect and

incident radiation
Slope aspect and insolation

Slope aspect and vertical site elements

Ventilation:
Topographic relief functions as a barrier and as wind blows
along the surface its velocity is affected by the shape of the
surface. The designers searches locations to funnel desirable
summer breezes into the area while protecting the same areas
from undesirable winter winds.
Ventilation and valley alignment

Ventilation around a Knoll

Resculpting the builging site for

seasonal air flow
Water as process
Water in its various forms comprises water cycle or

hydrological cycle.
Water as resource
Surface water:
Water is used for drinking, cleaning irrigation, industrial, climate
control, recreation and transportation purposes. Throughout
history settlements are located along or near water bodies to
meet the needs, but very often destructive floods were inevitable
which in time resulted in construction of water management
structures such as dams and reservoirs.
Resource management based on a strong land and ate ehic
would recognize the ability of water to serve our needs and the
need for water management. Accordingly development must be
located away from prime agricultural lands of the flood plain
allowing periodic flooding and again replenish the lanscape
through nature’s regenerative power.
Water as resource
Drainage pattern:
This pattern in a watershed evolves in response to surface
flow of water. Over time, this pattern aatains an equilibrium
with site forces providing various opportunities for use.
Changes to the equilibrium adversely affect this equilibrium,
thus ability, and therefore must me avoided.
For fully utilizing water resource any development shoul avoid
reshaping the land near the natural drainageway.
Development often replaces permeable ground condition with
impervious ones causing significant increase in water volume
and velocity; the result is destruction. Detention or retention
reservoirs are constructed to accomodate increasing water
volume. Other common problem is sedimentation which
requires filtering structures.
Water as resource
Preservation of
existing drainage
ways
Water as resource
Detention and retention

structures
Water as resource
Groundwater:
Retention structures are also important groundwater
management tools helping to maintain the water volume in
underground aquifers. Designers take care that adequate
water must infitrate must equal the amount discharged
naturally; plus the amount removed for irriation,
industrial/process use, and other withdrawals; plus the
amount prevented by development from entering the
groundwater reservoir. The quality of water infiltrated after
development must also beno less than that entering before
development.
Water as resource
Wetlands:
Stream banks, lake shores and wetlands are rich habitats
and very valuable to ecological system, and provide food
and shelter for wildlife.
Their contuinity with their animal and plant communities
depends upon hydrological supportive relationships.
Flood control and waste treatment are among other vital
functions of wetlends. Design approaches and
development plans should never adversely affect them.
Water as resource
Recreation:
Water is a very important recreation source. It provides
opportunities for SPA, swimming, fishing, boating etc and
related activities such as hiking, camping and many others.
Design and development approaches should not limit
public access and maintain its quantity and quality for
health, safety, welfare and pleasure.
Water as resource
Comfort:
In overheated conditions when the air dry, evoparative
cooling can effectively improve the site comfort. In these
conditions locating development dawnwind from water
bodies, irrigated lawns, or water sprays can reduce air
temperatures. Vegetation can provide shade and also
cooling through evopotranspiration of water from plant
surface.
Water as resource
Water sprays and evoparative

cooling
Site ponds and cooling

Water as resource
Sensual value:
Water has stimulating power to mind through sight and
sound. The lapping wave, gurgling brook, thunder of
waterfalls, splash of fish, crash of surf etc contribute to
the healing power of water.
The sight, sound, smell, and feel of water on skin are
stimuli that enrich sensation of place. These features of
water are invaluable for landscape design and place
making process.
Water as resource
Land values and land use:

Water in te environment commands a price; proximity to
water is a marketable commodity. Water edge creates high
degree of competition among land uses. Such land is valued
for parks, housing hotels, resorts, restaurants, cafes,
commercial areas and other uses. Each use or combination
of uses has a degree of suitability along the water edge
based on complex consderations that affect quality of life,
system carrying capacity, and limits beyond which water
resource will suffer significant degradation.
Although wetlands are highly valued resources only water-
dependent uses must be allowed in wetland areas and all
development impacts must necessarily be mitigated.
Water as design: Elements of visual design; line, form, color, texture
Line:
The character of line formed by water-land interface has a major
impact upon the images.
A soft textured line can avoke unbridled nature.
A highly controlled sinuous line can refer to a controlled or
symbolic nature.
A rectlinear line can allude to architecture.
Angular line confer energy.
The edge can be obstructed by aquatic plants to give a sense of
mystery or be crisp and decisevely bulkheaded.
Water surface can also be expressed as line; rythmic lines of
waves.
By shaping the edge over which water falls water can become a
series of vertical lines connecting water and sky.
Water as design: Elements of visual design: Line, form, color, texture
Water as rhytmic/directional line
Controlled nature at wate edge

Water as design: Elements of visual design: line, form, color, texture
Form:
Water features can be linear, accentuating the flow of
water, or compact in form conveying a sense of centrality
or arrival.
Form can be a complex combination of differing characters
pulling together disparate elements, or coversely can be
consistent and convey a unified sense.
Water as simple form Water as complex form

Color:
Good quality water is relatively clear and takes color
imparted by reflections carried upon its surface, by its
diffusing character, and by the color of its container.
White and mirrored containers express the transparency
of water and create the illusion of shallowness.
Light blue containers impart the clarity, cleanliness, and
purity of water.
Dark blue and black containers gives the illusion of
shadowy depth. Water in dark containers especially wet!!
Texture:
The surface of moving water is determined by depth and
flow characteristics and by the shape and texture of its
container. A sthe layer of water becomes thin even minor
differences in container alingment can cause surface
texture.
When a thin sheet of water moves down a near vertical
surface, minor ripples in the surface can impart interesting
textures and aeration to the water.
A stair shaped container can convert a smooth sheet of
water to dancing droplets, each reflecting the sun,and
together creating a frolicking cascade
(as widely used in Mughal gardens of India).
Water as design: Elements of visual design; Line, form, color, texture
Visual effects of vertical wall textures

Water as design: Elements of sensual quality: Design process
To optimize the sensual effect of water in landscape,

designers need to focus on design intent including function,
mood, aesthetics and sensual character. These isuues vary
in content. The figure on the next slide nshows a fountain
designed to enhance street character from one side and to
provide visual amenity, screening and evaporative cooling
from the other. The series of fall of the fountain masks the
street noise and provides aeration to enhance evaporation
and its cooling effect.
Water as design: Elements of sensual quality: Design process
Multipurpose waterfall and cascade

Water as design: Water as movement
Still (unmowing) water is visually and pcychogically

reflective. The slightest breeze dissolves its visual effect.
It has little power to mask the disruptive sounds.
Moving water can be subtle and dynamic. It can be just
audible or gurgling, can be laoud and splattering. It can
covey brute force and mask even the loudest urban
noises
Water as design: Water as allusion and symbol
Water can also be used as allusion and symbol.

Mowing water implies instability, mowement towards
equilibrium, and unresolved gravity.
Still water conveys stability, resolution and
peacefulness.
Natural landscapes are not found in the cities;
expressing nature and its forms in a city park,
interpretation of a mountain stream, river, flood plain
may provide powerful forms for the designers. These
can symbolize, concentrate and transpose meanings of
nature to the urban context.
Water as design: Water as allusion and symbol
Symbolic stream
Water as design: Water as ethic
Landscape interventions communicate an ethic. Great

velocities and volumes of water that over-power the
observer symbolize the anthopomorphic world view:
Man is the controller and conqueror of nature (such as
water plays of villa d’Este in Italy).
Small volumes of water extended through a series of
sensual experiences convey appreciation for scarcity
and value of water (as in islamic gardens of Alhambra
in Granada-Spain).
Water as design: Pools and ponds
Pools (architectonic) and ponds (natural) are still water

bodies.
Pools serve as reflecting surfaces. Pools are most
effective when reflecting something of visual interest.
The reflecting pool must also be of proper size, have
adequate depth and have dark colored container.
Ponds have naturalistic line quality often reinforced by
naturalized plantings. They are generally located at the
lowest elevation of the landform and they contribute
markedly to the pastoral mood of a place.
Water as design: Pools and ponds
Reflecting pool
Water as design: Channels
Channels are linear water conduits that convey movement and

decentralize the meaning. The sensual effect of a channel
depends upon wolume of water, rate of flow, and channel size,
shape and steepness. Slick channels produce smooth flows,
rough ones create turbulance.
Channel flow
Water as design:Cascades and watefalls
The falling water effect of waterfalls and cascades are

unlimited. This effect varies with the volume of water, rate
of flow, the condition of the edge over which water falls,
the height and nature of the fall and the surface
terminating the fall. As the volume increases flow tends to
be more regular and effect of other variations (such as
character of the edge) become less visual.
Rate of flow affects the inertia of water. Water falling over
a smooth edge forms a sheet-like cascade; flowing over a
rough edge, water is turbulent and aerated. If falling water
hits a hard surface the sound is loud, if it falls into a pool
the sound has a deeper tone and more muted.
Water as design: Water jets
Relatively large volumes of water forced through small

aperatures result in high flow velocities that overcome
gravity. The result is stream of water flowing thin and fast
then slowing and falling to earth upon itself (vertical jet), or
in another place (directional jet).
Vertical jets usually draw attention to specific points,
punctiating the landscape. Non-vertical jets can connect
points and lead the eye and they can be used to add
energy, movement and direction to a space.
There are various types and technologies involved for thhe
both.
Water as design: Water jets
Water jet as pointand punctuation

Water as design: Frozen water
Water that appears dark and transparent when liquid

becomes light and opaque upon freezing. Frozen reflecting
pools can also become recreational resources for ice
skating and other ice related outdoor activities if properly
designed and constructed.
Fountains if left running can produce wonderlands of ice
when temperatures drop. But for such a function
maintenance and safety issues must be kept in mind.
Especially in cold climates frozen water and relevant uses
add joy and pleasure to the lives of people.
Plants: Plant material as process
Plant materials are the ptoducts of biolological processes

operating in a specific placeand time. For these processes
plants need sunlight, water, nutrients and appropriate
tempetatures.
Basic life form (desert, short grass prairie, tall grass prairie,
savannah or forest) is determined by available water.
Species that can survive in an area are determined
bytemperature.
Actual plant materials on-site are ultimately determined by by
resident soils, as these soils affect water, nutrients, soil gases
available to plants.
All these and other rlevant factors holistically define habitat.
Plants and habitats change interdependently in a state of
dynamic equilirium.
Basic life form and available water

Succession refers to natural tendency of biological

systems to change over time in response to available
energy and resources.
Early successional plants are pioneers and they colonize
harsh environments (e.g. after fires, old mining areas etc).
They rapidly grow in the disturbed areas and tolerate wide
range of difficult environmental conditions.
Late successional plants depend on efficiency and they
maximize production of biomass (energy processed).
Successional processes alsohave spatial implicatioms. As
plant communities and environments change together over
time, they evolve interrelated and interesting spatial
patterns.
Early succession
Late succession
Desert plant community

Plants: Plant material as resource
Planning resource:
Plants capturing solar energ and make it available to food
chain aremost valuable global resources. Managing
regional/local character and sense of place involves the
management of plant material and vegetative patterns.
Interfaces of two or more ecological zones called
ecotones are vegetative corridors, valuable for wildlife
habitatsand movements. Preservation of these zones and
vegetative corridors is essential for environmental
management (compulsory due to European Landscape
Convention).
Design resource:
On the site design scale pants provide many sensual
benefits. They provide enclosure; defineand articulate the
space; screen, enframe or serve as backdrop for the
elements; contribute to the color of the environment;
provide shelter from the sun and winds but provide soft
breeze; influence microclimate and human comfort; by
evopotranspiring water they cool the air and induce small
amounts of air flow. Each of these characteristics can be
beneficial or detrimental depending on the climatic and
seasonal conditions, thus ey must be known and
understood by the designers.
Plant material and microclimate

Land value:
Significant vegetation can contribute to economic worth of
land. There are some economic formulas usually consider
plant size, species, condition, and environmental location
and then apply to weighing factors applicable to the region.
The worth of plant material varies with context and and
cultural significacance. For example the same tree is worth
several times its open field value if growing in the city.
Especially long living old trees due to their hstorical
significance carry an added value.
Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Elements of visual design
Line:
The character of line, form, color, texture exhibited by plant
material is instrumentai in determining sense of place.
Line characteristics of plant material can range from the
sinuous, evolving lines of nature to regularly spaced
straight and gemetrical lines of architeture.
Plant material organized as straight lines usually indicate
the presence of people; the birds siting on the power lines
or fences seed the plants on lines.
The site designer creates allees to direct the mowement
and lead the eye; rows of trees along streets reinforce the
linear character.
Edge of planted mass as line

Plant material as line that links elements

Form:
Plant form is a combination of overall plant shape and
habit of growth. Each shape has its own unique
characteristics and design potentials
Various plant forms

Fastigiate plants accentuate the vertical and serve as focal

points in design.
Columnar plants are similar to fastigiate but rounded at the top.
Round plants are non-directional and can provide unity in
planting composition.
Spreading forms reinforce the horizontal direction. They can be
effective in extending architectural forms into the site.
Pyramidal forms have a formal architectonic character and they
give rigidity and permanence to the composition.
Weeping plants generally occur in wet areas. They are more
effectice when cascade over architectural forms.
Picturesque forms are irregular or contorted and serve as
evocative specimens.
Designers are concerned with the form of individual plants

as well as plant groupings. The aggregate form of plant
communities changes with succession. Early successional
communities show random distributions organized as points
in the space.
Late successional communities organized as masses, fine
tuned to environmental variables.
Naturalistic plant masses are designed as loosely organized
responses to environmental criteria. In contrast, the bosque
is organized on a grid creating formal space articulated by a
coloumn of tree trunks and it read as a rectlinear mass from
a distance.
Early successional plant Late successional plant

distribution distribution
Bosque
Color:
Plant color plays a major role in the mood of the place. Light
green foliage creates an airy feeling; therefore spring
deciduous landscapes, lighter incolor seem more lively. Bright
colors seem cheerful, dark colors somber. Normal foliage
varies in value from light to dark and in hue from yellow-green
to blue- green, bronze, rust and purple. Fall color is more
dramatic with greater range of hues, but short-lived.
Plant color is supplied by flowers, fruit, foliage, bark, twigs and
branches.
In landscape design color combines with line, form and texture
to display plant material.
Texture:
It refers to the visual grain or coarsness of perceived surface. It
is influenced by leaf size, edge character, twig and branch
size, bark articulation, growth habit and viewing distance.
Coarse textured plants are characterized by large leaves,
massive branching, few twigs and massive growth habit. They
are dominant when used in composition with medium and fine
textured plants creating focal points. They are most effective
when displayed against fine textured backgrounds. Because
they make the space seem smaller they shouldn’t be used in
small and tight places.
Most plants are medium textured; their role in planting is

usually that of neutral mass, and as backdrop within which
fine or coarse material are displayed as accents.
Fine textured plants have many small leaves, dense and full
growth habit and many thin branches an fine twigs. They
are most effectively viewed at very close range and do not
overpower small spaces. They make the small spaces
seem larger.
Perceived texture changes with viewer’s location.
Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant strata and size
Strata (canopy, understory, shrub and groundcover) refers to

the various horizontal layers that constitute a plant community.
Size usually refers to the height to the top of the plant.
Large and intermediate trees:
Large trees are taller than 30m, intermediate trees are between
25-30m together they form a vegetated canopy. From outside
they form mass, from within, they form canopied space. Their
trunks imply but do not enclose space. The spaces they create
seem to have ceiling but no walls. A canopy changes the
character of sunlight from hard and glaring to soft and dappled.
When such canopy is fairly continuous a break in the canopy
becomes an outdoor room, open to the sky.
Plant strata Trees and enclosure

Outdoor room
Large and intermediate trees are effective microclimate

modifiers. They provide high and mid-angle sun. If closed
at their edge by lower branching material they can reduce
ventilation. Otherwise they can accelerate the air flow.
In planting design, large and intermediate trees can
provide mass and contribute large scale. If planted to
extend the lines and rhythm of architecture into exterior
space, tree trunks can give an architectural character to
the site.
Large trees and microclimate

Large and intermediate trees

provide bulk to plant mass
Tree trunks as landscape coloumn

Small and flowering (understorey) trees:

They grow 5-7m in height. Their form and intensity of flower can
differ substantially if they are grown beneath the canopy of
large/intermediate trees or in the open sun. In the open sun they
growth is thicker/rounder and flowering is more intense.
When canopies occur above head height small and flowering
trees imply intimate space. When canopies are at the eye level,
they enclose the space. These trees are effective in small and
intimate courtyards because they provide color and shade. They
are also used as accent plants or focal points. They are
effective screening mid to low-angle sun and often used on the
southwest side of the buildings or on the west and northwest
sides if augmented by low branching shrubs.
Small trees and spatial

enclosure
Small trees and shade

Small accent tree to lead the eye

Tall shrubs:
They grow to up to 5m. Their foliage usually extends close
to the ground. They provide a strong sense of enclosure
and a high degree of privacy. They are effective screens.
Tall shrubs can serve as sculptural elements in a large
space and provide backdrop against smaller plants and
sculptures.
Intermediate and low shrubs:
Intermediate shrubs grow 1-3m, and low shrubs to 0.30-
0.90m high. They define and physically separate spaces
without blocking the vision. Low shrubs provide weak
seperation whereas intermediate ones provide strong one.
Intermediate shrubs can become disconserting if their

topsoccur at eye level. It is best to avoid materials that top out
in between 1.5-2m, unless backed by taller materials.
Low shrubs can effectively link groups of larger plants while
alloving vision between the groups, unifying the composition
effectively.
Ground covers:
They define planted areas and they can unify groups of larger
plants into one composition. They also create spatial edge
and create lines that can lead to focal points, building entries.
They are very beneficial for slope stabilization especially
steeper than 4:1 (25%) which are difficult to mow and subject
to erosion.
Low shrubs and enclosure
Tall shrubs as screening/backdrop
Intermediate shrubs at eye level

Ground cover as line
Low shrubs linking plant masses

Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant size, unity and variety
A simplified palette limited to canopy trees and ground cover can be effective
in unifying disparate design elements. Coversely, a multi-tiered planting
scheme can provide variety and interest to an otherwise boring and sterile
architecture.
Complex planting to add variety to a boring composition

Plants: Plant material as design: Visual issues: Plant size, unity and variety
Unified planting to consolidate disparate elements

Plants: Plant material as design: Spatial issues: Enclosure, type, depth,
enfamement, plant material and landform
Spatial enclosure:
It is the perceived degree of seperation of space. Plant
material bloking the vision provide enclosure whereas non-
blocking ones only imply. Plants at eye level enclose
space. Solid plant masses provide strong enclosure.
Porous masses produce only partial enclosure. Overall
spatial definition and enclosure are the net visual effect of
various strata working together.
Density of edge and degree of

enclosure
Spatial definition
Spatial type:
In scale spaces range
from intimate to public,
in direction from
horizontal to vertical
and in closure from
fully enclosed to open
and unarticulated.
Spatial depth:
Spatial composition is more effective if it incorporates
foreground, middle ground and an background. Foreground
places the viewer into the space, while the middle ground
usually serves as subject matter and is displayed in the context
of background. A foreground of plants can be used to frame or
enclose subject matter and can provide a high degree of
contrast (in color, texture etc) between the subject and its
background. The relationship between foreground and
background can be designed to accentuate or mitigate depth.
Coarse grained plant material in the foreground and the fine
grained ones in the back ground extends the visual depth. The
opposite foreshoten space.
Depth and composition

Enfamement:
Plant material can enframe a view and can, by their
shape, enhance the form of subject matter or focal point
of the composition.
Plant material to enframe view

Plant material and landform:

Plant material ca strenghten or obfuscate landform. Dense
plantings along ridgelines add visual height to the form and
can increase enclosure. Conversely, planting the hollows
makes landforms less apparent. Swales that are necessary
for drainage (around a structure) can be consealed and the
horizontal line of the building extended into the site by
selecting ground covers and shrubs that establish a
horizontal plane. On large sites with significant landforms
plant material can be selected to express the slope aspect.
Planting to intensify landform

Slope aspect and plant material
Planting to imply flat form

Plants: Plant material as design: Other sensual issues
In addition to visual effect the designer can use smells, sounds

and tactile characteristics of plants. For example the beauty of
spring colors can be reinforced by flower aroma.
In most cases nonvisual stimuli are secondary in impact to
visual ones.
Physiological comfort is a major sensory issue in planting
design. Tree canopies can protect from the overhead summer
sun and can divert the wind. Low branching trees and shrubs
screen low-angle (early morning and late afternoon) sun and
deflect air.
Pavings absorb sunshine and reflect energy, but plants convert
energy to chemical bonds and don’t re-reflact. And, due to
evopotranspiration vegetated sites are cooler in summer than
the non-vegetated sites.
Evergreen vegetation and winter

airflow: Evergreen plant material can
be planted to divert winter winds from
the north-west and to block west and
nort-west late afternoon summer sun.
Vegetation and relative summer temperature

Plants: Plant material as design: Temporal aspects
Plants are living organisms; they grow, change in size, change

their character over time, and chang e in leaf condition, texture,
color etc.
Seasonal character:
Based on form and seasonal foliage plants are grouped into
three types: Deciduous, coniferous evergreen, broadleaf
evergreen. Each type has its own behavior and design potential.
Deciduous plants; are primary plant materials in temperate
climates and exhibit 4 different characters; in spring their foliage
is yellow-green and they can display flower color. Summer
foliage is darker. Fall colors can be very beautiful. In winter the
effect of their bare branches and trunk texture can last a long
time.
Plants: Plant material as design:Temporal aspects
Evergreen conifers; have
neddle–like leaves that remain in
winter. They don’t have flowers,
the foliage is dark and their growth
is heavy. Their massive and
solemn appearance convey a
feeling of solidity into a site.
Conifers block views permanently
providing high degree of privacy.
Conifers and privacy
When branching near the ground
they block the wind. To exclude
cold winter winds they are planted
on the north or northwest sides
where they can also block low
angle summer afternoon sun.
Broad leaf evergreens look like

deciduous plants but they keep
their foliage in winter. Their foliage
is dark, opaque and glassy looking.
They have vivid spring color. Most
of them require acid soils. They
don’t tolerate wide ranges of
temperature and generally need Mixed planting
protection from cold winter winds and
may require partial shade in summer.
Mixed plantings; deciduous plants
seem dead in winter; evergreens
seem somber and lack sesonal variety.
These disadvantages can be overcome
by mixed plantations.
Plants: Plant material as design:Temporal aspects
Growth and succession

Because large plants are costly, they are planted small.
Early successional material mature quickly but are
short-lived. Late successional ones are slower growing
but longer-lived. Therefore planting a mixture of them is
desirable. Early ones provide a mature look quickly and
dominate the composition for the first year. Late
succession becomes dominant later.
Plants: Plant material as design: Plant materials and design process
Environmentally responsible designers understand and respond

to site conditions. Accordingly the designer must:
1.Determine on site plant materials and their characteristics.
2.Based on these materials make reasonable estimations about
site conditions. Identify and resolve areas of concern.
3.Analyze existing plant material in terms of health, ability to
tolerate abuse, aility to satisfy program requirements.
4.Determine the plants to be saved.
5.Design for program, human and plant needs. When making
decisions consider construction-induced microclimatic changes
and resultant effects on the existing and proposed plant material.

ARCH 219 Landscape Design Course

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ARCH 219 Landscape Design Course

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ARCH 219 LANDSCAPE

This course consists of two parts; theory and practice

EUL Faculty of Architecture and Engineering

Prof. Dr Nur SÖZEN

Landscape as a system: A building is an element within the urban

• Ecological forces: Geological processes (tectonic,

Uplifted landscape-positive landform

Erosional landscape-negative landform

Direction of stream erosion

Variation in stream pattern

Hanging valleys and waterfalls

Saltation transfer of sand by wind

Earth ispowered by energy:

Early and late succesional ecosystems

• Land is solid part of earth’s surface; its 3-D relief

Terraced landform Rolling landform

Generally 2-D graphic techniques are used to represent 3-

The most common way to represent landform on

Contour lines Ridge and valley structure

Landform in section and profile

Landform manupilation: cut and fill

Landform issues must necessarily be fully considered in

Architectonic versus naturalistic form

Grain and enclosure

Ridgelines and military crests

Site and design slopes:

Landform, drainage and infrastructure:

In most landscapes water is the primary ecological and

Gravity flow systems including storm and sanitary sewerage

Gravity flow system

Landform and comfort:

Slope aspect or slope orientation (slope and direction of

Slope aspect and

Slope aspect and insolation

Slope aspect and vertical site elements

Ventilation and valley alignment

Ventilation around a Knoll

Resculpting the builging site for

Water in its various forms comprises water cycle or

Detention and retention

Water sprays and evoparative

Site ponds and cooling

Land values and land use:

Water as rhytmic/directional line

Controlled nature at wate edge

Water as simple form Water as complex form

Visual effects of vertical wall textures

To optimize the sensual effect of water in landscape,

Multipurpose waterfall and cascade

Still (unmowing) water is visually and pcychogically

Water can also be used as allusion and symbol.

Landscape interventions communicate an ethic. Great

Pools (architectonic) and ponds (natural) are still water

Channels are linear water conduits that convey movement and

The falling water effect of waterfalls and cascades are

Relatively large volumes of water forced through small

Water jet as pointand punctuation

Water that appears dark and transparent when liquid

Plant materials are the ptoducts of biolological processes

Basic life form and available water

Succession refers to natural tendency of biological

Desert plant community

Plant material and microclimate