Bio 11 - Nerves & Hormones Powepoint

IB Biology 2010/2011
Topic 6.5 – Nerves, Hormones & Homeostasis
RNS Science
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Overview: Command and Control Center
• The human brain

– Contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells,
or neurons (or neurones)
• Each neuron
– May communicate with thousands of other
neurons
– Neurons group together into nerves

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging
– Is a technology that can reconstruct a three-
dimensional map of brain activity
Figure 48.1

• The nervous system consists of the central
nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves
(sensory and motor neurons), and is composed
of cells called neurons that can carry rapid
electrical impulses.
• Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors
to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the
CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to
effectors by motor neurons.

• Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system
is regionally specialized
• In all vertebrates, the nervous system
– Shows a high degree of cephalization and
distinct CNS and PNS components Central nervous
Peripheral nervous
system (CNS)
system (PNS)
Brain Cranial
Spinal cord nerves
Ganglia
outside
CNS
Spinal
nerves
Figure 48.19
The Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS transmits information to and from the
CNS
– And plays a large role in regulating a
vertebrate’s movement and internal
environment

Two Categories of Peripheral Nerves
• Spinal Nerves
– 31 pairs (left and right)
– Emerge directly from the spinal cord
– ‘Mixed’ nerves which contain both sensory and

motor neurons.
• Cranial Nerves
– 12 pairs which emerge from the brainstem
• Eg. Optic nerve pair

• The cranial nerves originate in the brain
– And terminate mostly in organs of the head
and upper body
• The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

– And extend to parts of the body below the
head

• The PNS can be divided into two functional
components
– The somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system
Peripheral
nervous system
Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
system system
Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

division division division
Figure 48.21

• The somatic nervous system
– Carries signals to skeletal muscles
• The autonomic nervous system

– Regulates the internal environment, in an
involuntary manner
– Is divided into the sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric divisions

• The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
– Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division
Action on target organs: Action on target organs:
Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Location of of eye Location of
preganglionic neurons: of eye
preganglionic neurons:
brainstem and sacral thoracic and lumbar
segments of spinal cord Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary
gland secretion segments of spinal cord
gland secretion
Sympathetic
Neurotransmitter Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi Neurotransmitter
released by bronchi in lungs Cervical in lungs released by
acetylcholine
Slows heart Accelerates heart acetylcholine
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Location of Stimulates activity Thoracic Location of
postganglionic neurons: of stomach and postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or intestines Inhibits activity
some in ganglia close to
within target organs of pancreas
target organs; others in
Stimulates activity a chain of ganglia near
of pancreas Stimulates glucose spinal cord
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates Lumbar
Neurotransmitter
gallbladder
released by Stimulates Neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons: adrenal medulla released by
acetylcholine postganglionic neurons:
Promotes emptying norepinephrine
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
of bladder
Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and

of genitalia Sacral
Figure 48.22 Synapse vaginal contractions

• Sensory neurons transmit information from
sensors
– A stimulus is a change in the environment
(internal or external) that is detected by a
receptor and elicits a response
• Sensory information is sent to the CNS

– Where interneurons integrate the information
• Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

neurons
– Which communicate with effector cells
Information Processing
• Nervous systems process information in three
stages
– Sensory input, integration, and motor output
Sensory input
Integration
Sensor
Motor output
Effector-an organ that performs a response
Figure 48.3 Peripheral nervous Central nervous

system (PNS) system (CNS)
Knee-Jerk Reflex(brain not involved) – an example
• A reflex is a rapid, unconscious response, that is, a reaction to a
stimulus
• The three stages of information processing
2 Sensors detect 3 Sensory neurons 4 The sensory neurons communicate with
a sudden stretch in convey the information motor neurons that supply the quadriceps. The
the quadriceps. to the spinal cord. motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps,
Cell body of causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward.
sensory neuron
in dorsal Gray matter
root ganglion 5 Sensory neurons
Quadriceps from the quadriceps
muscle also communicate
White with interneurons
matter in the spinal cord.
Hamstring
muscle motor neurons 6 The interneurons
in ventral root inhibit motor neurons
that supply the
Spinal cord hamstring (flexor)
(cross section) muscle. This inhibition
prevents the hamstring
Sensory neuron from contracting,
Motor neuron which would resist
1 The reflex is the action of
Interneuron
initiated by tapping the quadriceps.
the tendon connected
to the quadriceps
Figure 48.4 (extensor) muscle.

Human Sensory Receptors
• mechanoreceptors,
– Sense of touch due to pressure receptors,
which also detect changes in blood pressure in
arteries.
– Stretch receptors in lungs,
– proprioceptors in muscle, tendons, ligaments,

joints to give info on position of arms and legs
– ie; posture and balance.
– Inner ear pressure receptors sensitive to
waves of fluids for info about equilibrium
• Chemoreceptors,
– Sense of taste and smell, in some blood

vessels they monitor pH which cause us to
change breathing rate.
– Pain receptors are a type of chemoreceptor
which respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues

• Thermoreceptors
– Warm and cold receptors respond to
temperature changes
• and Photoreceptors.
– In the eyes, rod cells respond in dim light in
black and white vision, cone cells respond to
bright light and give us colour vision

Diagram of the human eye.
• Sclera, cornea, conjunctiva, eyelid, choroid, aqueous
humour, pupil, lens, iris, vitreous humour, retina, fovea,
optic nerve and blind spot.
– The conjunctiva is the thin, transparent tissue that
covers the outer surface of the eye. It begins at the
outer edge of the cornea, covering the visible part of
the sclera, and lining the inside of the eyelids. It is
nourished by tiny blood vessels that are nearly invisible
to the naked eye.
– The conjunctiva also secretes oils and mucous that moisten
and lubricate the eye.

• The structure of the vertebrate eye
Sclera Choroid
Retina
Ciliary body
Fovea (center
Suspensory of visual field)
ligament
Cornea
Iris
Optic
Pupil nerve
Aqueous
humor
Lens
Vitreous humor
Central artery and
vein of the retina
Optic disk
Figure 49.18 (blind spot)
• Diagram the retina to show the cell types and the direction
in which light moves.
– Include names of rod and cone cells, bipolar neurons
and ganglion cells.
• Compare rod and cone cells.
– use in dim light versus bright light
– one type sensitive to all visible wavelengths versus

three types sensitive to red, blue and green light
– passage of impulses from a group of several rod cells
to a single nerve fibre in the optic nerve versus
passage from a single cone cell to a single nerve fibre.

• Three other types of neurons contribute to
information processing in the retina
– Ganglion cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine
cells
Retina
Optic nerve
To
brain
Retina
Photoreceptors
Neurons
Cone Rod
Amacrine
cell Horizontal
Optic cell
nerve Pigmented
Figure 49.23 fibers
Ganglion
cell
Bipolar
cell epithelium

• Signals from rods and cones
– Travel from bipolar cells to ganglion cells
• The axons of ganglion cells are part of the optic

nerve
– That transmit information to the brain
Left Right
visual visual
field field
Left Right
eye eye
Optic nerve
Optic chiasm
Lateral
geniculate
nucleus
Primary
Figure 49.24 visual cortex

Summary of Parts of the Eye with Functions
Part Functions
Iris Regulates the size of the pupil
Pupil Opening that admits light
Retina Contains receptors for vision
Aqueous humour Transmits light rays and supports the eyeball
Vitreous humour Transmits light rays and supports the eyeball
Rods Allow black and white vision in low light
Cones Allow colour vision in bright light
Fovea An area of densely packed cone cells where vision is most acute
Lens Focuses the light rays
Sclera Protects and supports the eyeball
Cornea Focusing begins here
Choroid Absorbs stray light
Conjunctiva Covers the sclera and cornea and keeps eye moist
Optic Nerve Transmits impulses to the brain
Eye Lid Protects the eye

Processing Visual Stimuli
• The processing of visual stimuli, including edge
enhancement and contralateral processing.
– Edge enhancement occurs within the retina and can be
demonstrated with the Hermann grid illusion and
other illusions.

• Contralateral processing is due to the optic
chiasma, where the right brain processes
information from the left visual field and vice
versa (see a couple of slides back). This can
be illustrated by the abnormal perceptions of
patients with brain lesions.

• Label a diagram of the ear.
– Include pinna, eardrum, bones of the middle
ear, oval window, round window, semicircular
canals, auditory nerve and cochlea.
• Explain how sound is perceived by the ear,

including the roles of the eardrum, bones of the
middle ear, oval and round windows, and the
hair cells of the cochlea.
– The roles of the other parts of the ear are not
expected

• Exploring the structure of the human ear
1 Overview of ear structure 2 The middle ear and inner ear
Incus
Skull Semicircular
bones canals
Stapes
Middle
Outer ear ear Inner ear Malleus
Auditory nerve,
to brain
Pinna
Tympanic
membrane
Cochlea
Eustachian
Auditory tube
canal
Oval Eustachian
Tympanic window tube
Hair cells Tectorial
membrane
membrane Round
window
Cochlear duct
Bone
Vestibular canal
Auditory nerve
Basilar Axons of To auditory
membrane sensory neurons nerve Tympanic canal
Organ of Corti
Figure 49.8 4 The organ of Corti 3 The cochlea

How Sound is Perceived by the Ear…..
• Vibrations of the eardrum due to sound waves
are amplified by the bones of the ear (hammer,
anvil and stirrup) approximately 20 times.
• The stapes rests on the oval window of the
cochlea and causes it to vibrate, which vibrates
liquid in the cochlea and moves hairs on hair
cells in the cochlea.
• Hair cells synapse with sensory neurons in the
auditory nerve leading to the brain.
• The degree to which the hairs bend is ‘sound’
• Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a
motor neuron.
• Include dendrites, cell body with nucleus, axon,
myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier and motor end
plates.
– The junction at which a neuron sends a
chemical to muscle tissue is known as a motor
end plate

Neuron Structure
• Most of a neuron’s organelles
– Are located in the cell body
Dendrites
Cell body Nodes of Ranvier
Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction
Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell

Myelin sheath
(Schwann Cells)
Synaptic
terminals
• Define resting potential and action potential
(depolarization and repolarization).
• Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a
non-myelinated neuron.
• Include the movement of Na+ and K+ ions to
create a resting potential and an action
potential.

Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting
potential of a neuron
• Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a
voltage
– Called a membrane potential
• The inside of a cell is negative

– Relative to the outside

• The membrane potential of a cell can be
measured Electrophysiologists use intracellular recording to measure the
APPLICATION
membrane potential of
neurons and other cells.
TECHNIQUE A microelectrode is made from a glass capillary tube filled with an electrically conductive
salt solution. One end of the tube tapers to an extremely fine tip (diameter < 1 µm). While looking through a
microscope, the experimenter uses a micropositioner to insert the tip of the microelectrode into a cell. A
voltage recorder (usually an oscilloscope or a computer-based system) measures the voltage between the
microelectrode tip inside the cell and a reference electrode placed in the solution outside the cell.
Microelectrode
–70 mV
Voltage
recorder
Reference
Figure 48.9 electrode
• A neuron that is not transmitting signals
– Contains many open K+ channels and fewer

open Na+ channels in its plasma membrane
– The diffusion of K+ and Na+ through these
channels
– Leads to a separation of charges across the
membrane, producing the resting potential
– The concentration of Na+ is higher in the
extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
– While the opposite is true for K+
• The net effect is a negative charge inside the
cell due to a number of negatively charged
organic ions permanently located in the
cytoplasm of the axon

Gated Ion Channels
• Gated ion channels open or close
– In response to membrane stretch or the
binding of a specific ligand
– In response to a change in the membrane
potential

• Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons
• If a cell has gated ion channels
– Its membrane potential may change in response to

stimuli that open or close those channels
• An action potential
– Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a neuron’s

plasma membrane
– Is the type of signal that carries information along
axons

• Both voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-
gated K+ channels
– Are involved in the production of an action
potential
• When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane

– Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into
the cell

• As the action potential subsides
– K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell
• A refractory period follows the action potential

– During which a second action potential cannot
be initiated

• At the site where the action potential is
generated
– An electrical current depolarizes the
neighboring region of the axon membrane
Axon
Action
potential
– – + + + + + +
+ ++ – – – – – –
1 An action potential is generated
Na
+ + – – – – – – as Na+ flows inward across the
– – + + + + + + membrane at one location.
Action 2 The depolarization of the action

K+ potential
+ + – – + + + + potential spreads to the neighboring
– – +
Na +
+ – – – – region of the membrane, re-initiating
– – + + – – – –
the action potential there. To the left
+ + – – + + + +
K+ of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.
Action The depolarization-repolarization process is
3
K+ potential
+ + + + – – – – repeated in the next region of the
– – – – + ++ + + membrane. In this way, local currents
– – – – Na + +
+ + of ions across the plasma membrane
+ + – – – –
Figure 48.14 + +
K+
cause the action potential to be propagated
along the length of the axon.

Conduction Speed
• The speed of an action potential
– Increases with the diameter of an axon
• In vertebrates, axons are myelinated

– Also causing the speed of an action potential
to increase

• Action potentials in myelinated axons
– Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a
process called saltatory conduction
Schwann cell
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath
––
–
––
+ –
Cell body ++ +
+ +
++
Axon
––– +
++
––
–
Figure 48.15

Synaptic Transmission
• Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

– Include the release, diffusion and binding of
the neurotransmitter, initiation of an action
potential in the post-synaptic membrane, and
subsequent removal of the neurotransmitter.

• In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron
– Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which
are stored in the synaptic terminal
Postsynaptic
neuron
Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons
5 µm
Figure 48.16
Direct Synaptic Transmission
– Calcium ions diffuse into the buttonWhen an action potential
reaches a terminal button:
– Vesicles with neurotransmitter fuse with the presynaptic

membrane
– Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft and binds with a receptor
protein on the postsynaptic membrane, which opens an ion
channel for sodium to diffuse into post neuron
– This depolarization initiates an action potential in the post
membrane.
– Enzymes then break down the neurotransmitter which releases it
from the receptor protein
– Sodium ion channel closes
– Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse back into presynaptic buttons
• When an action potential reaches a terminal
– The final result is the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic
cell
5 Na+
Synaptic vesicles Neuro-
K+
containing transmitter
Presynaptic
neurotransmitter
membrane
Postsynaptic
membrane
Ligand-
gated
Voltage-gated ion channel
Ca2+ channel
1 Ca2+
4 Postsynaptic
2 6
membrane
Synaptic cleft 3
Ligand-gated
Figure 48.17 ion channels

• Major neurotransmitters
Table 48.1

Acetylcholine
• Acetylcholine
– Is one of the most common neurotransmitters
in both vertebrates and invertebrates
– Can be inhibitory or excitatory

Enter the Endocrine System glands with hormones
• Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal
environment (blood and ECF) between limits,
including
– blood pH,
– carbon dioxide concentration,
– blood glucose concentration,
– body temperature and
– water balance (kidney, next year).

• Homeostasis involves monitoring levels of
variables and correcting changes in levels by
negative feedback mechanisms.
• The nervous system, largely the ANS, and
endocrine system work together to ensure
homeostasis

Control of Body Temperature
• A temperature rise is sensed by
thermoreceptors in the skin which signals the
hypothalmus of the brain to cool things down
• Increased activity of the sweat glands,
arterioles in the skin dilate allowing heat to
transfer to the surface via the blood, water
evaporates which cools down the skin.
• Cooling reverses this process and causes
shivering so muscles generate heat.

Control of blood glucose levels….
• Glucose absorbed by the capillary beds of the
intestinal villi, is transported by the hepatic
portal vein to the liver.
• Liver cells (hepatocytes) are acted upon by
insulin and glucagon, two hormones produced
by the pancreas, which have antagonistic
effects with respect to blood glucose
concentrations.

• High blood glucose levels stimulate the beta
cells of the pancreas to secrete insulin, which
causes protein channels in cell membranes, to
open and facilitate diffusion of glucose into
cells.
• In addition, muscle cells and hepatocytes will
take up the glucose and store it as glycogen
polymers.

• As blood glucose levels drop, alpha cells of the
pancreas produce and secrete glucagon, which
circulates through the bloodstream.
• When received by hepatocytes of the liver and
muscle cells, they hydrolyze their stored
glycogen to produce glucose.
• This glucose is released into the bloodstream

Diabetes
• Characterized by hyperglycaemia (high blood sugar) Two
different types:
• Type I diabetes
– When beta cells of the pancreas do not produce
enough insulin
– Controlled by insulin injection
• Type II diabetes
– Body cell receptors do not respond properly to glucose.
– Controlled by diet

More on Diabetes….
• Type I is an autoimmune disease
• Body’s immune system destroys beta cells so

little or no insulin is produced
• Type II body cells change response to insulin,
called insulin resistance
• 90% of diabetes are Type II due to genetic
history, obesity, lack of exercise, advanced
age.

RNS Science

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IB Biology 2010/2011

Topic 6.5 – Nerves, Hormones & Homeostasis

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The human brain

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Emerge directly from the spinal cord

– ‘Mixed’ nerves which contain both sensory and

• Eg. Optic nerve pair

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The autonomic nervous system

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Sensory information is sent to the CNS

• Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

Effector-an organ that performs a response

Figure 48.3 Peripheral nervous Central nervous

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– proprioceptors in muscle, tendons, ligaments,

– Sense of taste and smell, in some blood

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– one type sensitive to all visible wavelengths versus

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The axons of ganglion cells are part of the optic

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pupil Opening that admits light

Retina Contains receptors for vision

Aqueous humour Transmits light rays and supports the eyeball

Vitreous humour Transmits light rays and supports the eyeball

Rods Allow black and white vision in low light

Cones Allow colour vision in bright light

Lens Focuses the light rays

Sclera Protects and supports the eyeball

Cornea Focusing begins here

Choroid Absorbs stray light

Optic Nerve Transmits impulses to the brain

Eye Lid Protects the eye

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Explain how sound is perceived by the ear,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Cell body Nodes of Ranvier

Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The inside of a cell is negative

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Contains many open K+ channels and fewer

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• If a cell has gated ion channels

Bio 11 - Nerves & Hormones Powepoint

Bio 11 - Nerves & Hormones Powepoint