Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gary Mankey
MINT Center and Department of Physics
http://bama.ua.edu/~gmankey/
gmankey@mint.ua.edu
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þacuum
þacuum A vacuum is defined as less
than 1 Atmosphere of pressure.
1 Atm = 105 Pa = 103 mbar =
760 Torr
760 mm Hg Below 10-3 Torr, there are more
ATM
gas molecules on the surface of
the vessel then in the volume of
the vessel.
High þacuum < 10-3 Torr
þery High þacuum < 10-6 Torr
Ultra High þacuum < 10-8 Torr
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:hy do we need a vacuum?
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þacuum Systems
A vacuum system consists of
chamber, pumps and gauges.
Chambers are typically made of
glass or stainless steel and
sealed with elastomer or metal
gaskets.
Pumps include mechanical,
turbomolecular, diffusion, ion,
sublimation and cryogenic.
Gauges include thermocouple
for 1 to 10-3 mbar and Bayard-
Alpert for 10-3 to 10-11 mbar.
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Alabama Deposition of Advanced Materials
All materials are either
glass, ceramics, stainless
steel, copper and pure
metals.
A turbomolecular pump
and a cryo pump create
the vacuum.
Sputtering sources are
used for deposition.
Characterization
methods include
RHEED, and Auger
electron spectroscopy.
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Bayard-Alpert or Ionization Gauge
Filament Collector Electrons, e-, produced by the
e- n hot filament are accelerated
n Grid
through the grid acquiring
e- n
n I+
I+ sufficient energy to ionize
n
e- neutral gas atoms, n.
I+ 1 cm
The ionized gas atoms, I+, are
e- n then attracted to the negatively,
n n biased collector and their
current is measured with an
-45 þ +150 þ electrometer.
Electrometer Typical ion gauges have a
6 þAC
sensitivity of 1-10 Amp / mbar
and range of 10-3-10-11 mbar.
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Residual Gas Analysis
A quarupole mass spectrometer
analyzes the composition of gas
in the vacuum system.
The system must be ³baked´ at
150 - 200 ºC for 24 hours to
remove excess water vapor from
the stainless steel walls.
The presence of an O2 peak at
M/Q = 32 indicates an air leak.
At UHþ the gas composition is
H2, CH4, H2O, CO and CO2.
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Monolayer Time
:e define the monolayer time as
the time for one atomic layer of gas
to adsorb on the surface:
o = 1 / (SZA).
At 3 x 10-5 Torr, it takes about one
second for a monolayer of gas to
Sticking Coefficient adsorb on a surface assuming a
S = # adsorbed / # incident sticking coefficient, S = 1.
Impingement rate for air: At 10-9 Torr, it takes 1 hour to form
Z = 3 x 1020 j cm-2 s-1 a monolayer for S = 1.
For most gases at room
Area of an adsorption site:
temperature S<<1, so the
A Ë 1 Å2 = 10-16 cm2
monolayer time is much longer.
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þapor Pressure Curves
The vapor pressures of most
materials follow an Arrhenius
equation behavior:
PþAP = P0 exp(-EA/kT).
Most metals must be heated to
temperatures well above 1000 K
to achieve an appreciable vapor
pressure.
For PþAP = 10-4 mbar, the
deposition rate is approximately
10 Å / sec.
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Physical Evaporation
A current, I, is passed through
the boat to heat it.
Substrate
The heating power is I2R, where
R is the electrical resistance of
the boat (typically a few ohms).
Flux
For boats made of refractory
Boat Evaporant metals (:, Mo, or Ta)
temperatures exceeding 2000º C
can be achieved.
Materials which alloy with the
High Current boat material cannot be
Source evaporated using this method.
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Limitation of Physical Evaporation
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Electron Beam Evaporator
The e-gun produces a beam of
electrons with 15 keþ kinetic
Substrate
energy and at a variable current of
up to 100 mA.
e-beam The electron beam is deflected
Flux
270º by a magnetic field, B.
Evaporant The heating power delivered to a
' small (~5mm) spot in the evaporant
Crucible is 15 kþ x 100 mA = 1.5 k:.
The power is sufficient to heat
most materials to over 1000 ºC.
e-gun Heating power is adjusted by
controlling the electron current.
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The Sputtering Process
Electrons (e-) are localized in the
plasma by a magnetic field.
Substrate The e- collide with argon gas
atoms to produce argon ions.
1 mTorr Ar The Ar+ are accelerated in an
+ Plasma electric field such that they strike
-
Discharge the target with sufficient energy to
eject target atoms.
Target The target atoms, being electrically
R R neutral, pass through the plasma
R and condense on the substrate.
Magnets
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Measuring and Calibrating Flux
Many fundamental physical properties are
sensitive to film thickness.
In situ probes which are implemented in
the vacuum system include a quartz crystal
Ë microbalance, BA gauge, Auger / XPS,
and RHEED.
Ex situ probes which measure film
thickness outside the vacuum system
include the stylus profilometer,
spectroscopic ellipsometer, and x-ray
diffractometer.
Measuring film thickness with sub-
angstrom precision is possible.
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Quartz Crystal Microbalance
Frequency Conversion to The microbalance measures a shift
Measurement Thickness in resonant frequency of a
vibrating quartz crystal with a
Display precision of 1 part in 106.
fr = 1/2O sqrt(k/m) Ë f0(1-m/2m).
Substrate For a 6 MHz crystal disk, 1 cm in
diameter this corresponds to a
Quartz change in mass of several
Crystal nanograms.
d = m / (A), so for a typical metal
d Ë 10 ng / (10 g/cm3*1 cm2) =
Flux
0.1 Angstroms.
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Auger / XPS
Electron Energy An x-ray source produces
Analyzer
photoelectrons or a electron gun
produces Auger electrons.
Excitation:
The electrons have kinetic
X-rays or
keþ Electrons energies which are characteristic
of the material.
The attenuation of substrate
Photoelectrons & electrons by the film is described
Auger Electrons by Beer¶s law:
I = I0 exp(-dcosã/ ).
Since, Ë 10 Å, this technique
has a high sensitivity.
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Auger Electron Spectroscopy
Kinetic The excitation knocks a core
Energy electron out producing a core hole.
Excitation To lower the energy of the ion, an
electron from an upper shell decays
EþAC
nonradiatively into the core hole.
Upper
Shell The Auger electron from the upper
shell acquires an energy equal to the
energy difference of the core hole
and upper shell.
Core The kinetic energy of the electrons
Hole are measured to identify the
chemical species of the atoms.
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Secondary Electron Energy Distribution
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Cu Auger Scan in Pulse Counting Mode
These transitions
correspond to Auger
electrons ejected from the
valence band by a
neighboring electron
filling the L shell or 2p
levels.
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Cu Auger Spectrum for Analog Mode
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Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction
15 keþ electrons reflect from the
surface and are displayed as a spot
on a phosphor screen.
d = atomic
spacing The angle is adjusted such that
s electrons reflecting from adjacent
layers interfere destructively.
15 keþ :hen only one layer is exposed, the
Electron Gun Screen spot is bright.
:hen the top layer covers half of
the surface, the spot is extinguished.
Path difference = 2dsinã = (n+1/2) j
The time between two maxima in
j = [150 / E(eþ)]1/2 the intensity plot is the monolayer
time.
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Epitaxial Growth
Epi-Taxi (@
epi meaning ³on´
Film taxi meaning ³arrangement
in relation to a source of
stimulation´
The crystal structure of the
film has a direct relationship
Substrate to that of the substrate
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Growth Modes for Ultrathin Films
The growing film surface can
exhibit different behaviors
depending on substrate
Layer by Layer Stranski-Kastranov temperature, interfacial
strain, and alloy miscibility.
The growth modes must be
þolmer-:eber Diffusion Limited characterized using a
combination of chemical
tools such as Auger electron
spectroscopy and structural
tools such as RHEED and
Surface Segregation Surface Alloy
atomic force microscopy.
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