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° In stability program, the ac network equations are represented in
terms of +ve sequence quantities.

° This imposes a fundamental limitation on the modelling of the dc

systems, in particular commutation failures cannot be predicted
accurately.

° Notwithstanding the above limitation, models of various degrees

of detail have been effectively used to represent dc systems in
stability studies.

° Some of the early efforts to incorporate HVDC system models

into stability programs used detailed representation.In recent years
the tend has been toward simpler models.
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° Simpler models are adequate for general purpose stability studies
of systems in which the dc link is connected to strong parts of the
ac system.

° For weak ac system applications & for multiterminal dc systems

require detailed models.

° So, the trend is to have flexible modelling capability with wide

range of detail.

° The required degree of detail depends on the purpose of the study

and the particular dc system.
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° ^ach dc system tends to have unique characteristics tailored to

meet the specific needs of its application.

° Therefore, standard models of fixed structures have not been

developed for representation of dc system in stability studies.

° So, three categories, as :

A. Simple model
B. Response or performance model &
C. Detailed model with flexible modelling capability.
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° These models are adequate for remote dc links, which do not
have a significant impact on the results of the stability analysis.

° The dc links can be represented as constant active & reactive

power injections at the ac terminals of the converters.

° If more realistic models are required, the dc links is represented

by the static converter equations and functional effects of the
controls.

° The models appear as algebraic equations and the interface

between ac & dc systems is treated in a manner similar to that
described for power-flow analysis.
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ode 1: Rectifier on CC ; Inverter on C^A .

ode 2: Inverter on CC ; Rectifier on CIA .

ode 3: Rectifier on CIA ; Inverter on constant-ȕ control .

In this case T/F taps are not adjusted as they are no fast enough to be
effective during the period of interest.
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° Iord is determined so as to provide either current control or power

control as desired.
° Constraints are imposed on the current-order level to keep the
current within the range of min. & max. limits
° The maximum current is determined by VDCOL as shown.
° The VDCOL may be given a time delay to assist in riding through
ac system faults.
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° It is necessary to have adequate representation of the actions of
control during the faults.

° If the ac voltage on either side falls below a certain value for

longer than a specified time, the direct-current order is set to zero.
° A ramp limit restricts the rate of decrease of direct current.

° The line is shut off when the current falls below a specified
minimum value.The direct current is restored after the ac voltage
recovers to an acceptable level.

° If the voltage recovers before the direct line current has reached its
minimum value, the direct current is restored to its original value
immediately
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° If the voltage recovery occurs after the after the line has been shut
down, the recovery has been delayed by a specified time.

° After this, the direct line current is restored to its original value at a
specified maximum rate.

° The alternative recovery procedures.

(i). The current is increased by controlling rectifier Į, with the
inverter firing angle fixed at 900 .When the current reaches
Idesired- Im,the inverter extinction angle is ramped down to a
specified value.
(ii). The current is increased with a maximum possible dc voltage.
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° Option (i) ensures ,
during recovery maximum reactive power is drawn
from the ac system and may be used to control the ac over
voltages.

° Option (ii) ensures,

maximum possible power is transmitted through the
dc link.

° The mode of operation & dc blocking and deblocking sequences

are system dependent.

° The optimum sequence is established by experimentation.

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Rhutoff and recovery sequence

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° The dc model usually includes a logic for shutting of the dc line
for commutation failure, detected by monitoring commutation
voltage or converter margin angle.

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° Dynamics of controls used for ac system stabilization are
represented accurately, consistent with the representation used
for other forms of stability controls. ^g: PSS
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The stator phase currents (ia,ib,ic) in new variables (id, iq) as :

id = kd [iacosș + ibcos(ș-2Ȇ/3) +iccos(ș+2Ȇ/3) ]

iq = -kq [iasinș + ibsin(ș-2Ȇ/3) + icsin(ș+2Ȇ/3) ]

The constants kd., kq are arbitary and their values may be chosen
to simplify numerical coefficients in performance equations.

If kd & kq ü 2/3
for a balanced sinusoidal conditions, the peak

values of id & iq are equal to the peak value of the stator
currents.
For balanced condition,

ia = imsin Ȧst
ib = imsin (Ȧst - 2Ȇ/3)
ic = imsin (Ȧst ë 2Ȇ/3)

id = kd [imsin Ȧst cosș + imsin (Ȧst - 2Ȇ/3) cos(ș-2Ȇ/3)

+ imsin (Ȧstë2Ȇ/3)cos(ș+2Ȇ/3) ]

= kd (3/2) Imsin (Ȧst- ș)

Similarly,
iq = -kq (3/2) Im cos (Ȧst- ș)

i0 = 1/3 (ia + ib + ic)

The transformation from the ÷
to  in matrix form is:

The inverse transformation is :

These transformations also applicable to stator flux

linkages and voltages.
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° For weak AC/DC systems the modulation of DC power for
stabilization results in transient changes of both frequency and
amplitudes of the alternating voltages on the converter bus bar.

° This transient modulation of the commutating voltages, and the

associated shiftings of the voltage zero crossings, activates the
converter controls.

° This may lead to instability and collapse of the DC link due to

repetitive commutation failures.

° In order to assure proper operation of the DC link and minimize

voltage fluctuations throughout the network it is best to maintain the
converter AC bus voltage constant during the modulation period.
° To overcome the mentioned difficulties, coordinated active and
reactive power modulations using input signals from both the
converter stations have been used

° A Kalman filtering technique to minimize the system measurement

requirements, and observer based on the Kalman filtering approach
is used for controlling AC/DC systems.

° Both optimal and modal control of the rectifier current regulators

have been undertaken to damp electromechanical oscillations of
weak AC/ DC systems.
° However, none of the above schemes possesses disturbance
rejection properties, nor are they insensitive to plant parameter
variations or the non-linear loads at the AC/DC interface buses.
° A new approach based on sliding mode control and variable
structure systems theory for the design of the rectifier current
regulator can be used to get above said benifits.

° The same technique can also be applied to the reactive power

control schemes using a static VAR compensator or gamma
modulation regulator.

° The sliding mode control constrains the system motion to a state

trajectory and provides a robust, realizable control scheme.

° The problem of designing the controller is to determine a suitable

switching surface that yields a desired control input forcing the
instantaneous states to sliding modes.
° The variable structure current regulator has a normal DC current
regulator along with a control signal derived from speed, voltage
or load angle deviation signals using sliding mode theory.

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â The synchronous generator supplying power through an AC
transmission line and an HVDC transmission link is represented
by an equivalent voltage source ^ behind the transient reactance
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â The DC transmission link modelled in this study is a two-terminal
one, having one controlled rectifier and one controlled inverter as
links to the AC system. Shunt capacitors are used at both the
rectifier and inverter ends to provide reactive power support.
â A static VAR compensator is either connected to the rectifier or
the inverter bus to provide adequate damping for oscillations of
the AC/DC system during transient disturbances.
â A non-linear load is connected at the rectifier bus and its active
and reactive power are non-linear functions of the load bus
voltage.
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sing a simplified generator model of a voltage behind the transient
reactance, the following equations hold good for the integrated AC/DC
system at the generator:
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' For the DC transmission link, constant current control is assumed

at the rectifier and constant extinction angle control at the inverter.
' The DC power modulation for the improvement of AC/DC system
dynamic performance is implemented by adding a modulating
signal to the reference current of the converter current controller.
' The model of the converter current controller with the auxiliary
stabilizing control u1 derived from the generator speed deviation
signal and using a feedback gain Kʘ .

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The equation for the rectifier firing angle control is
given by:
The DC line is represented by an equivalent j
circuit yielding a
dynamic first-order response for the DC current:

Rac and Lac are the resistance and inductance, respectively, of the DC
line.
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° A static VAR compensator (SVC) with thyristor controlled reactor

(TCR) is considered for reactive power modulation control.
° SVC is either placed at the rectifier or the inverter end depending on
the system requirements and the effective short-circuit ratio.
' The primary function of the SVC is to control the reactive power
and stabilize the commutating bus voltage.
' The auxiliary stabilizing signal us is added to the main controller to
improve the dynamic performance of the AC/DC system.
' The dynamic equation for the susceptance presented to the converter
bus is

Qs is the reactive power rating of the SVC and Įo the initial firing
angle (0” Įo ” š )
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' variable structure systems (VSSs) are used to enhance the dynamic
performance of the AC/DC system.

' VSS controllers possess several attractive features, for example, fast
response, good transient performance, and insensitivity to variations
in plant parameters and external disturbances.

' Further, the sliding mode control, which constrains the system motion
to a state trajectory, provides greater robustness than classical control
schemes.
' To design a variable structure current regulator for the HVDC link,
the system equations (discussed earlier) are linearized about an
operating point to yield,

and u1 is the auxiliary control for the current regulator.

The constants g1 to g8 are obtained by linearizing the system eqns.
The switching hyperplane is defined by the equation

where parameters cl to c3 are chosen to achieve the desired system

performance.

A non-linear combination of state variables may be used, provided

that the desired dynamic performance can be obtained with the
Chosen form.

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a sliding

mode on the switching surface ı require, in the vicinity ± 2,
that
^liminating . from switching hyperplane (with ), the
Reduced state equation in a matrix form

The characteristic equation of this reduced system is

Assuming the above characteristic equation has one eigen value at
zero and two other eigen values at Ȝ1 and Ȝ2 (which can be fixed as
desired),
The expression for auxiliary control i1 is taken as

Thus,
Hence, if feed back gain parameters Õ
Õ
and Õ are chosen to be

and the dynamics of 3 are neglected, then the condition

yields the following set of inequalities:

Where,
Further, the simplification ˜
c = 0 can be used without much effect
on the controller design, thus neglecting the dynamics of the DC line
(its time constant being small). With this simplification, the system
equations are :

The switching hyperplane is

The characteristic matrix with one pole at zero of the reduced system
is

Proceeding in the same way as before, we obtain the values of c1 and c2

Instead of the rotor angle deviation ǻį, the voltage deviation at the
rectifier bus can be used as a feedback signal for the DC link current
controller design:
The expression for ȴVs is
The gains ȴ1 and ȴ2 are obtained in a similar way:
However, if a coordinated current control at the rectifier and a Ȗ
modulation at the inverter is required, the change in Ȗ is given by

Also, in a similar way, if a static VAR controller is used at the

inverter end, the change in the susceptance at the inverter end is
given by

These equations are to be incorporated in the linearized equations of

the system to give the coefficients g1, g2 . . . . . g12 of the coordinated
Control scheme.