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Chapter 23

Circulation

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 0

How Does Gravity Affect Blood Circulation?

• Most animals have a circulatory system that
transports O2 and nutrients to cells and takes away
CO2 and other wastes
• The circulatory system of land animals has evolved
adaptations to deal with gravity
– Strong hearts are able to pump against the
force of gravity
– Muscles contract around veins and force blood
to the heart through one-way valves
– In snakes, wriggling contracts muscles,
squeezing veins and increasing circulation

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 23.1 The circulatory system connects with all
body tissues
• A circulatory system transports materials close
enough to cells for diffusion to occur
• Microscopic capillaries form an intricate network
among cells of a tissue
– Molecules from blood cells diffuse into
interstitial fluid and then into body cells
– Waste products diffuse from body cells
through interstitial fluid to capillaries for
transport to disposal organs
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
LE 23-01b

Red
blood
cell

Nuclei of
smooth
muscle
Capillary cells

LM 700×
LE 23-01b

Capillary

Interstitial Diffusion of
fluid molecules

Tissue
cell
 MECHANISMS OF INTERNAL TRANSPORT
23.2 Several types of internal transport have
evolved in animals
• Gastrovascular cavity
– Sufficient for animals in which diffusion can
transport molecules directly to the cells
– Examples: cnidarians, flatworms
• Open circulatory system
– Heart pumps blood through open-ended
vessels to bathe tissue cells directly; no
separate interstitial fluid
– Body movements help circulate blood
– Examples: most molluscs, all arthropods
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LE 23-02a

Mouth

Circular
canal
LE 23-02b

Tubular heart
Pores
 • Closed circulatory systems
– Blood is confined to vessels, which keeps it
separate from the interstitial fluid
• Arteries carry blood away from heart to
tissues and organs
• Veins return blood to the heart
• Capillaries convey blood between arteries and
veins within each tissue
– Most arteries carry oxygen-rich blood and most
veins carry oxygen-depleted blood, but there are
important exceptions

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LE 23-02c
Capillary beds
Arteriole
Artery
(O2-rich blood)

Venule

Vein

Atrium
Heart
Ventricle
Gill Artery
capillaries (O2-poor blood
 23.3 Vertebrate cardiovascular systems reflect
evolution
• The switch from gill breathing to lung breathing in
terrestrial vertebrates was accompanied by
important changes in the cardiovascular system
• Single circuit in aquatic animals
– The two-chambered heart pumps blood from
gill capillaries to systemic capillaries and back
to the heart

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 • Double circulation in terrestrial vertebrates
– Pulmonary circuit carries blood between heart
and lungs
– Systemic circuit carries blood between heart
and rest of the body
– Amphibians: three-chambered heart
– Reptiles (except birds): three-chambered heart
with partially divided ventricle in most
– Birds and mammals: four-chambered heart with
ventricle completely divided
• Essential adaptation to support high
metabolic rate
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LE 23-03a
Gill capillaries

Heart:

Ventricle (V)

Atrium (A)

Systemic capillaries
LE 23-03b
Lung and skin capillaries

Pulmocutaneous
circuit

A A

Right Left
Systemic
circuit

Systemic capillaries
LE 23-03c
Lung capillaries

Pulmonary
circuit

A A

V V

Right Left

Systemic
circuit

Systemic capillaries
 THE MAMMALIAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
23.4 The human heart and cardiovascular
system are typical of mammals
• The mammalian heart
– Formed mostly of cardiac muscle tissue
– Two thin-walled atria receive blood and pump it
into the ventricles
– Thick-walled ventricles pump blood to lungs
and other body organs
– Valves maintain the flow in one direction

Animation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 23-04a

Right
atrium

Left
atrium

Semilunar Semilunar
valve valve

Atrioventricular
(AV) valve Atrioventricular
(AV) valve

Right Left
ventricle ventricle
 • The flow of blood is from the heart to the lungs,
back to the heart, out to the body, and then back
to the heart
– Pulmonary circuit
1. Right ventricle
2. Pulmonary arteries
3. Capillaries in lungs
4. Pulmonary veins
5. Left atrium
6. Left ventricle
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 • Systemic circuit

7. Aorta
8. Head, chest, arms, abdominal region, legs
9. Superior and inferior venae cavae
10. Right atrium to right ventricle

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LE 23-04b

Superior Capillaries of
vena cava head, chest, and
arms

Pulmonary Pulmonary
artery artery

Capillaries Capillaries
Aorta
of right lung of left lung

Pulmonary Pulmonary
vein vein
Right atrium Left atrium

Right ventricle Left ventricle

Inferior Aorta
vena cava

Capillaries of
abdominal region
and legs
 23.5 The structure of blood vessels fits their
functions
• Capillaries
– Thin walls with a single layer of epithelial cells
– Facilitate exchange of materials
• Arteries and veins
– Epithelium reinforced by layers of smooth
muscle and connective tissue

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 – Arteries
• Thicker walls accommodate the rapid
flow of blood and high pressure
• Smooth muscle can regulate blood
flow by constriction or relaxation
– Veins
• Thinner walls, under less pressure and
slower flow
• Valves prevent backflow

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LE 23-05
Capillary
Epithelium Basement
Valve
membrane
Epithelium
Epithelium
Smooth
muscle Smooth
muscle
Connective Connective
tissue tissue

Artery Vein

Arteriole Venule
 23.6 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically
• The cardiac cycle is a complete sequence of filling
and pumping
• Diastole
1. Heart is relaxed; blood flows from the veins
into all four chambers
• Systole
2. Atria contract briefly; ventricles completely
fill with blood
3. Ventricles contract; valves open and close;
blood pumps into the large arteries and then
flows into atria
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LE 23-06
Heart is Atria
relaxed. contract.
AV valves
are open.

0.1 sec
Systole

0.3 sec Ventricles

0.4 sec contract.
Semilunar
valves
are open.
Diastole
• Cardiac output is the amount of blood/minute
pumped into the systemic circuit by the left
ventricle
• Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood
– “Lub-dup” sounds caused by the closing of
valves
– Heart murmur may indicate a valve defect
 23.7 The pacemaker sets the tempo of the
heartbeat
• The pacemaker (SA node) maintains the heart’s
pumping rhythm
1. SA node generates electrical signals
2. Signals make atria contract in unison; are
delayed at AV node
3. Specialized muscle fibers relay signals to
apex of heart
4. Signals are relayed through walls of
ventricles, triggering contractions that drive
blood out of the heart
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LE 23-07

Specialized
Pacemaker AV node
muscle fibers
(SA node)

Right
artium

Right
ventricle
Apex

ECG
 • An electrocardiogram measures electrical
activity of the heart through changes in the skin
• An artificial pacemaker provides a regular
electrical signal to trigger normal heartbeat
• Heart rate is also influenced by nerves,
hormones, and environmental conditions

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 CONNECTION
23.8 What is a heart attack?
• A heart attack is the death of cardiac muscle cells and the
resulting failure of the heart to deliver enough blood to the
rest of the body
– Results from blockage in coronary arteries

• Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in the

United States
– Atherosclerosis: development of plaques on artery
walls, impeding blood flow
– Tendency may be inherited, but lifestyle changes can
reduce risk

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 23-08a

Aorta
Superior
vena cava

Left
coronary
Pulmonary artery
artery

Right
coronary
artery
Blockage

Dead
muscle
tissue
LE 23-08b

Connective Smooth
tissue muscle Epithelium Plaque

LM 160×

LM 60×
 23.9 Blood exerts pressure on vessel walls
• Blood pressure is the force blood exerts against
the walls of blood vessels
– Caused by pumping of the heart
– Can be felt as pulse, the rhythmic stretching of
the arteries

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 • Blood pressure and velocity depend partly on
cardiac output and partly on the resistance of
vessels
– Highest in the aorta and arteries
– Decrease abruptly as blood enters
arterioles because of friction between blood
and large surface area
– Lowest in capillaries, because cross-
sectional area is greatest
– Near zero in veins
• Blood returns to the heart with the aid
of muscular contractions and valves
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LE 23-09a
120

Pressure (mm Hg)

Systolic
100 pressure
80
60
Diastolic
40
pressure
20
0

Relative sizes and

numbers
of blood
vessels

50
Velocity (cm/sec)

40
30
20
10
0
Arteries

Arterioles
Aorta

Capillaries

Venae cavae
Veins
Venules
LE 23-09b

Direction of
blood flow
in vein

Valve
(open)

Skeletal
muscle

Valve
(closed)
 CONNECTION
23.10 Measuring blood pressure can reveal
cardiovascular problems
• Blood pressure indicates the force of the heart’s beating
during systole and the background pressure of the blood
in arteries during diastole
• Blood pressure is measured as systolic over diastolic
pressure, in mm Hg
– 110/70 is typical for a healthy young adult
• Higher than normal blood pressure may indicate serious
cardiovascular disorder
– Hypertension is persistent blood pressure higher than
140/90

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 23-10-3

Blood
pressure
110 systolic
70 diastolic
(to be measured) Pressure Pressure Pressure
in cuff in cuff in cuff
above 110 at 110 at 70
Rubber cuff 110 110
inflated
with air 70

Sounds Sounds
audible in stop
Artery Artery stethoscope
closed
 23.11 Smooth muscle controls the distribution of
blood
• Except for the brain, liver, kidneys, and heart,
blood supply varies depending on tissue need
• Constriction of arterioles can reduce blood flow
to capillaries
• Contraction and relaxation of precapillary
sphincters controls blood flow through capillary
beds
• Nerves and hormones influence the contraction
of smooth muscles in both mechanisms
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
LE 23-11a
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare
channel

Capillaries

Arteriole Venule

Sphincters relaxed
LE 23-11b
Thoroughfare
channel

Arteriole Venule

Sphincters contracted
23.12 Capillaries allow the transfer of substances
through their walls
• Capillaries are the only vessels with walls thin
enough to allow transfer of substances through
the epithelium
• The transfer of materials between the blood and
interstitial fluid occurs in several ways
– Diffusion
– Endocytosis and exocytosis
– Pressure-driven flow through clefts between
epithelial cells

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 • Forces driving fluid out of and into capillaries
– Blood pressure forces fluid out of the capillary at
the arterial end
– Osmotic pressure draws fluid in at the venous
end

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 23-12a
Capillary
lumen

Capillary Interstitial
wall fluid

Nucleus of
epithelial
cell

Muscle Cleft between

TEM 5,000× cell two epithelial
cells of the
capillary wall
LE 23-12b

Tissue cells

Osmotic Osmotic
Arterial pressure pressure Venous
end of end of
capillary capillary

Blood Blood
pressure pressure

Interstitial Net fluid Net fluid

fluid movement out movement in
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD
23.13 Blood consists of red and white blood cells
suspended in plasma
• Blood is about 55% plasma and 45% cellular
elements
– Plasma
• 90% water
• 10% dissolved inorganic ions, proteins,
nutrients, wastes, gases, and
hormones
– Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• Transport O2 bound to hemoglobin
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 – White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Function both inside and outside the
circulatory system to fight infections and
cancer
– Platelets
• Cell fragments involved in clotting

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 23-13a
Plasma
(55%)
Constituent Major functions

Water Solvent for

carrying other
substances

Salts (ions) Osmotic balance,

Sodium pH buffering, and
Centrifuged
Potassium nerve and muscle
blood
Calcium function
sample
Magnesium
Chloride
Bicarbonate

Plasma proteins Osmotic balance

and pH buffering
Fibrinogen Clotting
Immunoglobulins Immunity
(anitbodies)

Substances transported by blood

Nutrients (e.g., glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism
Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Hormones
LE 23-13b

Cellular elements (45%)

Cell type Number Functions

per µ L (mm3) of
blood
Erythrocytes
(red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport of
oxygen (and
Centrifuged
carbon dioxide)
blood
sample
Leukocytes Defense and
5,000–10,000
(white blood immunity
cells)

Lymphocyte
Basophil

Eosinophil

Neutrophil Monocyte

Platelets 250,000– Blood clotting

400,000
 CONNECTION
23.14 Too few or too many red blood cells can be
unhealthy
• Red blood cells
– Circulate for 3 to 4 months
– Old cells are broken down and their
components are recycled
• Anemia
– An abnormally low amount of hemoglobin or
red blood cells
– Most commonly caused by iron deficiency

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 • Red blood cell production
– Takes place in bone marrow
– Under control of a negative feedback
system
– Mediated by the hormone erythropoietin
• Increased red blood cell production is a
physiological adaptation to living at high
altitudes
– Athletes may try dangerous artificial
methods

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 23.15 Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels
are injured
• Blood clotting involves platelets, the plasma
protein fibrinogen, and clotting factors
• The clotting process
1. Platelets adhere to exposed connective
tissue
2. Platelet plug forms
3. Fibrinogen converted to fibrin, forms clot
that traps blood cells
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
LE 23-15a

Platelets adhere to exposed Platelet plug forms Fibrin clot traps

connective tissue blood cells

Epithelium

Connective tissue

Platelet plug
Platelet
 • Blood-clotting malfunctions
– Hemophelia
• Inherited disease
• Blood doesn’t clot, and bleeding can
be fatal
– Thrombus
• Clot formed in the absence of injury
• Can break free and lodge in a vessel,
causing heart attack, stroke, or
pulmonary embolism

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 CONNECTION
23.16 Stem cells offer a potential cure for blood
cell diseases
• Red bone marrow contains unspecialized stem
cells
– Differentiate to produce all blood cells
– Continually produce all the blood cells needed
throughout life
• Stem cells may be used to treat some blood
disorders such as leukemia, cancer of the white
blood cells
– Healthy bone marrow may be transplanted
from a donor
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LE 23-16

Stem cells Stem cells

Erythrocytes Basophils

Platelets
Eosinophils

Lymphocytes Monocytes Neutrophils