Introduction and Tissues

Human Anatomy
BIOL 1010

Liston Campus
 What is Anatomy?
Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure
Physiology: study of body’s function
Structure reflects Function!!!
Branches of Anatomy
 Gross: Large structures
 Surface: Landmarks
 Histology: Cells and Tissues
 Developmental: Structures change through life
 Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Each of these build upon one another
to make up the next level:
Chemical level
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Chemical level
 Atoms combine to make molecules
 4 macromolecules in the body
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Cellular
 Made up of cells and cellular organelles
(molecules)
 Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic
 Organelles are structures within cells that
perform dedicated functions (“small organs”)

http://cmweb.pvschools.net/~bbecke/newell/Cells.html
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Tissue
 Collection of cells that work together to
perform a specialized function
 4 basic types of tissue in the human body:
 Epithelium
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nervous tissue

www.emc.maricopa.edu
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ
 Made up of tissue
 Heart
 Brain
 Liver
 Pancreas, etc……

Pg 181
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ system (11)
 Made up of a group of related organs that
work together
 Integumentary
 Skeletal Urinary System
 Muscular
 Nervous
 Endocrine
 Cardiovascular Circulatory
 Lymphatic
 Respiratory
 Digestive
 Urinary
 Reproductive

Pg 341
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organism
 An individual human, animal, plant, etc……
 Made up all of the organ systems
 Work together to sustain life
 Anatomical Directions
Anatomical position
Regions
 Axial vs. Appendicular
Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
 Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
 Medial vs. Lateral
 Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
 Superficial vs. Deep
 Proximal vs. Distal
Anatomical Planes
 Frontal = Coronal
 Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
 Sagittal Pg 5
 Reference Point

Anterior – (ventral) Posterior – (dorsal) Frontal Plane

Closer to the front surface of Closer to the rear surface
the body of the body
Medial – Lateral – Sagittal Plane
Lying closer to the midline Lying further away from the
midline
Superior – (cranial) Inferior – (caudal) Horizontal Plane
Closer to the head in relation to Away from the head or
the entire body towards the lower part of
(More General) the body
Superficial – Deep – Surface of body or
Towards the surface Away from the surface organ

Proximal – Distal – Origin of a structure

Closer to the origin of a body Further away from the
part origin of a body part
(More Specific)
Embryology: growth and development
of the body before birth

38 weeks from conception to birth

Prenatal period
 Embryonic: weeks 1-8
 Fetal: weeks 9-38
Basic adult body plan shows by 2nd month
 Skin = epidermis, dermis
 Outer body wall=muscle, vertebral column and spinal
cord
 Body cavity and digestive tubes
 Kidney and gonads
 Limbs=skin, muscle, bone
Weeks 5-8 and Fetal Period
Second month, tadpole  person
 Tail disappears
 Head enlarges
 Extremities form (day 28, limb buds appear)
 Eyes, nose, ears form
 Organs in place
Fetal Period
 Rapid growth and maturation
 Organs grow and increase in complexity &
competence
4 Types of Tissue

1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that
have a similar structure and perform a related function

Four types of tissue

 Epithelial = covering/lining
 Connective = support
 Muscle = movement
 Nervous = control
Most organs contain all 4 types
Tissue has non-living extracellular
material between its cells
EPITHELIAL TISSUE: sheets of
cells cover a surface or line a cavity
Functions
 Protection
 Secretion

 Absorption

 Ion Transport

 Slippery Surface
Characteristics of Epithelium
Cellularity
 Composed of cells
Specialized contacts
 Joined by cell junctions
Polarity
 Apical vs. Basal surfaces differ
Supported by connective tissue
Avascular
Innervated
Highly regenerative
Classification of Epithelium-based
on number of layers and cell shape
Layers
 Simple
 Stratified
 Stratified layers characterized by shape of apical layer
 Psuedostratified
Shapes
 Squamous
 Cuboidal
 Columnar
 Transitional
 Simple squamous (1 layer)
Types of Epithelium  Lungs, blood vessels, ventral
body cavity
Simple cuboidal
 Kidney tubules, glands
Simple columnar
 Stomach, intestines
Pseudostratified columnar
 Respiratory passages (ciliated
version)
Stratified squamous (>1 layer)
 Epidermis, mouth, esophagus,
vagina
 Named so according to apical
cell shape
 Regenerate from below
 Deep layers cuboidal and
columnar

Transitional (not shown)

 Thins when stretches
 Hollow urinary organs
All histology pictures property of BIOL 1010 Lab
Special Epithelium
Endothelium
 Simple squamous epithelium that lines vessels
 e.g. lymphatic & blood vessel

Mesothelium
 Simple squamous epithelium that forms the
lining of body cavities
 e.g. pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
Features of Apical Surface of
Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane
of apical epithelial cell
 Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes
 Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
 Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
Flagella: (ex) spermatoza
 Extra long cilia
 Moves cell
Features of Lateral Surface of
Epithelium
Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
 Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
 Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
 Cell Junctions (3 common)
 Desmosomes
 adhesive spots on lateral sides linked by proteins/filaments
 holds tissues together
 Tight Junctions
 at apical area
 plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
 Gap junction
 spot-like junction occurring anywhere made of hollow cylinders
of protein
 lets small molecules pass
Features of the Basal Surface
of Epithelium
Basement membrane
 Sheet between the epithelial and connective tissue
layers
 Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
 Made up of:
 Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet made of
proteins
 Superficial layer
 Acts as a selective filter
 Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
 Reticular fiber layer
 Deeper layer
 Support
Glands
Epithelial cells that make and
secrete a product
Products are water-based and
usually contain proteins
Classified as:
 Exocrine vs. Endocrine
 Unicellular vs. multicellular

Page 138
Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Exocrine Glands
 Secrete substance onto body
surface or into body cavity
 Activity is local
 Have ducts
 Unicellular or Multicellular
 (ex) goblet cells, salivary,
mammary, pancreas, liver
Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Endocrine Glands
 Secrete product into blood stream
 Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells
 Hormones travel to target organ to increase
response (excitatory)
 No ducts
 (ex) pancreas, adrenal,
pituitary, thyroid
4 Types of Tissue

1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
4 Types of Connective Tissue

1) Connective Tissue Proper

2) Cartilage
3) Bone Tissue
4) Blood
Connective Tissue (CT):
most abundant and diverse tissue
Four Classes
Functions include connecting, storing &
carrying nutrients, protection, fight
infection
CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix
Some types vascularized
All CT originates from mesenchyme
 Embryonic connective tissue
1) Connective Tissue Proper
Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT
 Functions
 Support and bind to other tissue
 Hold body fluids
 Defends against infection
 Stores nutrients as fat
 Each function performed by different kind
of fibers and cells in specific tissue
Fibers in Connective Tissue
Fibers For Support
 Reticular:
 form networks for structure & support
 (ex) cover capillaries
 Collagen:
 strongest, most numerous, provide tensile strength
 (ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
 Elastic:
 long + thin, stretch and retain shape
 (ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
In Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts:
 cells that produce all fibers in CT
 produce + secrete protein subunits to make them
 produce ground matrix
Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid
 derived from blood in CT proper
 medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to cells
 found in ground matrix
Ground Matrix (substance):
 part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs
interstitial fluid
 Made and secreted by fibroblasts
 jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules
Defense from Infection
Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first
defense
Cells travel to CT in blood
 Macrophages-eat foreign particles
 Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction
 Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
inflammation response
 White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes,
eosinophils-fight infection
Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
Loose CT Proper
Areolar CT
 All types of fibers present
 All typical cell types present
 Surrounds blood vessels and
nerves
Specialized Loose CT Proper
Adipose tissue
 Loaded with adipocytes, highly vascularized, high
metabolic activity
 Insulates, produces energy, supports
 Found in hypodermis under skin
Reticular CT
 Contains only reticular fibers
 Forms caverns to hold free cells, forms internal
“skeleton” of some organs
 Found in bone marrow, holds blood cells, lymph
nodes, spleen
Dense/Fibrous Connective
Tissue
Contains more collagen
Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
Regular vs. Irregular
 Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull
 (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
 Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions
 (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones

Dense regular Dense irregular

Components of CT Proper Summarized
Cells Matrix

Fibroblasts Gel-like ground

substance
Defense cells Collagen fibers
-macrophages Reticular fibers
-white blood cells
Elastic fibers
Adipocytes
2) Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage
Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
 Reside in lacunae
More abundant in embryo than adult
Firm, Flexible
Resists compression
 (eg) trachea, meniscus
Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/ low oxygen)
NOT Innervated
Perichondrium
 dense, irregular connective tissue around cartilage
 growth/repair of cartilage
 resists expansion during compression of cartilage
Cartilage in the Body
Three types:
 Hyaline
 most abundant
 fibers in matrix
 support via flexibility/resilience
 (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
 Elastic
 many elastic fibers in matrix too
 great flexibility
 (eg) external ear, epiglottis
 Fibrocartilage
 resists both compression and
tension
 (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus
Components of Cartilage Summarized

Cells Matrix

Chondrocytes Gel-like ground

substance
Chondroblasts Lots of water
(in growing cartilage)
Some have collagen and
elastic fibers
3) Bone Tissue: (a bone is an organ)

Well-vascularized
Function:
 support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
 protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
 mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
(inorganic component)
 movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
 blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
 Bone Tissue
Osteoblasts
 Secrete organic part of bone matrix
Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
 Sit in lacunae
 Maintain bone matrix
Osteoclasts
 Degrade and reabsorb bone
Periosteum
 External layer of CT that surrounds bone (except at
joints)
 Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Endosteum
 Internal layer of CT that lines cavities and covers
trabeculae
 Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../skeletal.htm
 Compact Bone
External layer
Osteon (Haversian system)
 Parallel to the long axis of the bone
 Groups of concentric tubules (lamella)
 Lamella = layer of bone matrix where all fibers run
in the same direction
 Adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions
 Haversian Canal runs thru center of osteon
 Contains BV and nerves

Interstitial lamellae

www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../CartilageandBone03.htm
 Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone

Spongy bone (cancellous bone):

internal layer
 Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of
bone form honeycomb
 each made of several layers of lamellae +
osteocytes
 no canal for vessels
 space filled with bone marrow
 not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s
center
Shapes of Bones
Flat = skull, sternum, clavicle

Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae

Short = carpals, patella

Long = femur, phalanges,

metacarpals, humerus
 Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis
 Medullary Cavity
 Nutrient Art & Vein
2 Epiphyses
 Epiphyseal Plates
 Epiphyseal Art & Vein
Periosteum
 Outer: Dense irregular CT
 Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
 Does not cover epiphyses
 Attaches to bone matrix via collagen fibers
Endosteum
 Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
 Covers trabeculae, lines medullary cavity
training.seer.cancer.gov/.../illu_long_bone.jpg
2 Types of Bone Formation
Endochondral Ossification: All other bones
 Begins with a cartilaginous model
 Cartilage calcifies
 Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts
 Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
 Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years

Intramembranous Ossification
 Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle
 Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that mineralizes
Bone Growth & Remodeling
GROWTH
 Appositional Growth = widening of bone
 Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum
 Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts
 Lengthening of Bone
 Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
 Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate)
 Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side
REMODELING
 Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue
needs to be replaced
 Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca2++ ,
PO4 to body fluids from bone
 Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid
 Ideally osteoclasts and osteoblasts work at the
same rate!
Components of Bone Tissue Summarized

Cells Matrix

Osteblasts Gel-like ground substance

calcified with inorganic
salts

Osteoclasts Collagen fibers

Osteocytes
4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue
Function:
 Transports waste, gases, nutrients,
hormones through cardiovascular system
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Protects body by fighting infection
Derived from mesenchyme
Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
 Occurs in red bone marrow
 In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting

Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types

fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
Components of Blood Summarized
Cells Matrix

Erythrocytes Plasma
(red blood cells) (liquid matrix)

Leukocytes NO fibers
(white blood cells)

Platelets
4 Types of Tissue

1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells/fibers
 Elongated
 Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin
FUNCTION
 Movement
 Maintenance of posture
 Joint Stabilization
 Heat Generation
Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
(each skeletal muscle is an organ)

Cells
 Long and cylindrical, in bundles
 Multinucleate
 Obvious Striations
Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
Connective Tissue Components:
 Endomysium-surrounds fibers
 Perimysium-surrounds bundles
 Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
Attached to bones, fascia, skin
Origin & Insertion academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../muscular.htm
Cardiac Muscle

Cells
 Branching, chains of cells
 Single or Binucleated
 Striations
 Connected by Intercalated discs
Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
Myocardium-heart muscle
 Pumps blood through vessels
Connective Tissue Component
www.answers.com
 Endomysium: surrounding cells
 Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cells
Single cells, uninucleate
No striations
Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
Lines hollow organs, blood vessels
Connective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells
4 Types of Tissue

1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Nervous Tissue
Neurons: specialized nerve cells
conduct impulses
 Cell body, dendrite, axon
Interneuron: between motor &
sensory neuron in CNS
Characterized by:
 No mitosis (cell replication)
 Longevity
 High metabolic rate

www.morphonix.com
Nervous Tissue: control

Support cells (= Glial): nourishment,

insulation, protection
 Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
ganglia
 Schwann cells-surround axons
 Microglia-phagocytes
 Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons
 Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
ciliated,help circulate CSF
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Integumentary System

Functions
 Protection
 Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
 Cushions & insulates deeper organs
 Prevention of water loss
 Thermoregulation
 Excretion
 Salts, urea, water
 Sensory reception
Microanatomy - Layers of the
Skin
Epidermis
 Epithelium
Dermis
 Connective tissue
Hypodermis / subcutis
 Loose connective tissue
 Anchors skin to bone or muscle
Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
 Hair follicles
 Sweat and Sebaceous glands
 Nails

www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg
Cell Layers of Stratum corneum
Dead keratinocytes
the Epidermis


Stratum lucidum
 Only in “thick” skin
 Dead keratinocytes
Stratum granulosum
 Water proofing
Stratum spinosum
 Resists tears and tension
Stratum basale
 Sensory receptors
 Melanocytes
 Keratinocytes (in all layers)
15minbeauty.blogspot.com
Layers of the Dermis
Highly innervated
Highly vascularized
Collagen & Elastic fibers
2 layers:
 Papillary layer (20%)
 Areolar CT
 Collagen
 Innervation
 Hair follicles
 Reticular layer (80%)
 DICT
 Glands
 2.5 million sweat
glands!!
 Smooth muscle fibers
www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg
 Innervation
Hypodermis
Also called superficial fascia
Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue
Functions
 Store fat
 Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
 Insulation
Structure of Tubular Organs
LUMEN
Tunica Mucosa
 Lamina epithelialis
 Lamina propria
 Lamina muscularis mucosa
Tunica Submucosa
Tunica Muscularis
 Inner circular
 Outer longitudinal
Tunica Adventitia / Serosa
 Adventitia – covers organ directly
 Serosa – suspends organ in the peritoneal cavity Pg 347