SDH Basics: The Keepers of Communications

SDH Basics
• Current transmission technologies (PDH)

• The Synchronous Digital Hierarchie (SDH)
• Bit rates, frame structures and interfaces in SDH
• Basic elements of STM-1
• SDH network elements
• Synchronization architecture in SDH
• Monitoring, maintenance and measurements in SDH
• International SDH Network standards
• Future Trends
Copyright by Wolfgang Sunk, ACTERNA Austria GmbH All rights reserved.

Elisabethstr. 36, A-2500 Baden No parts of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted,
e-mail: wolfgang.sunk@acterna.com or translated without the written permission of the publisher.
http://www.acterna.com
The Keepers of Communications

Current Transmission Technologies

The Telephone System
LE LE

Sampling
T1 T2 T3
time Audio Signal
T4 T5 T6 T7
Sampler Output
Pulse Amplitude T1 T2 T3
time
Modulated (PAM) T4 T5 T6 T7
signal

Non-Linear Quantization and Encoding
Quantization
Level digital codes
112 1 1 1 1 X X X X
96 1 1 1 0 X X X X 1/2V
1/4V
80 1 1 0 1 X X X X 1/8V
64 1 1 0 0 X X X X
1/16V
48 1 0 1 1 X X X X
1/32V
32 1 0 1 0 X X X X
1/64
1 0 0 1 X X X X
V
1 0 0 0 X X X X
-V 0 0 0 0 X X X X +V
In accordance with 0 0 0 1 X X X X
CCITT’s A-law 0 0 1 0 X X X X

PCM Signal Data Rate
8000 8
samples x bits per = 64kbit/s
per sec sample

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

PDH Systems Worldwide
Japan USA Europe
5. 397200
397200kbit/s
kbit/s 564992
564992kbit/s
kbit/s
x4 x4
4. 97728
97728kbit/s
kbit/s 274176
274176kbit/s
kbit/s 139264
139264kbit/s
kbit/s
x3
x3 x6 x4
3. 32064
32064kbit/s 44736
kbit/s 44736kbit/s
kbit/s 34368
34368kbit/s
kbit/s
x4
x5 x7
6312 8448
8448kbit/s
6312kbit/s
kbit/s kbit/s
2. order
x4 x3 x4
1544
1544kbit/s
kbit/s 2048
2048kbit/s
kbit/s
primary rate
x 24 x 30/31
64
64kbit/s
kbit/s

PDH Multiplex / Demultiplex
2048 kbit/s (+/-50ppm)
1
64 kbit/s 8448 kbit/s (+/-30ppm)
Data Signals 30 1
34 368 kbit/s (+/-20ppm)
DSMX 1
64k/2
1
139264 kbit/s (+/-15ppm)
0.3 to 3.1 kHz 1
30
AF signals
PCMX 30
1
15 kHz
Sound Program 5
DSMX
4
Signals 34/140
PCMX 30 4
DSMX
8/34
DSMX Channel Capacity:
64
30
2/8 64 x 30 = 1920

2 Mbit/s Frame Structures
signalling
2.448 kbit/s frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in 125µs information
encoded voice / data signals encoded voice / data signals
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots

signalling
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots
Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS
(frames 0,2,4...)
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...)
Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm)
A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)
Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

data links (point-to-point applications)
FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011)
NFAS: Non frame alignment signal

signalling
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots
Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0
(frames 0,2,4...) MFAS NMFAS
Si 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa NFAS a b c d a b c d frames 1... 15 & 17...31
(M) 4 5 6 7 8 (frames 1,3,5...) signalling signalling
subscr. n subscr. n+15

Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)
E: CRC error indication (0=Error)

NFAS: Not frame alignment signal

2.448 kbit/s Multiframe, ITU-T G.704

multiframe
fr 15 fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 8 fr 9 fr 10 fr 11 fr 12 fr 13 fr 14 fr 15
sub multiframe 1 sub multiframe 2

signalling
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots
Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0

Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)


2.048 kbit/s Multiframe, ITU-T G.704
multiframe
fr 15 fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 8 fr 9 fr 10 fr 11 fr 12 fr 13 fr 14 fr 15

signalling
time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 slots
Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 FAS 0 0 0 0 x Y x x frame 0
Time slot 0 of CRC multiframe:

0 FAS C1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 NFAS 0 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa
256 X 8 bit = 2048 bit A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)
6 FAS C4 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 Y: Remote MF alarm (1=Alarm)
7 NFAS 1 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa E: CRC error indication (0=Error)
8 FAS C1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 M: Transmitting CRC multiframe alignment signal
9 NFAS 1 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa ( CRC MFAS: 001011 )
256 X 8 bit = 2048 bit
14 FAS C4 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
15 NFAS E2 1 A Sa Sa Sa Sa Sa

Plesiochronous Hierarchies - Frame Structures
8.448 kbit/s; frame length 848 bit; 100.4 us; ITU-T G.742
10 2 200 4 208 4 208 4 4 204
A: Alarm Bit
1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c s1 s2 s3 s4
N: National Spare Bit
1a: Stuffing Control Bit
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A N S: Stuffing Bit
34.368 kbit/s; frame length 1536 bit; 44.7 us; ITU-T G.751
10 2 372 4 380 4 380 4 4 376
1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c s1 s2 s3 s4
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A N

Plesiochronous Hierarchies - Frame Structures
139.264 kbit/s; frame length 2928 bit; 21 us; ITU-T G.751
12 4 472 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 4 480
1a 2a 3a 4a 1b 2b 3b 4b 1c 2c 3c 4c 1d 2d 3d 4d 1e 2e 3e 4e s1 s2 s3 s4
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 A N N N
A: Alarm Bit
N: National Spare Bit
1a,b,c,d: Stuffing Control Bit
S: Stuffing Bit

PDH Maintenance Signals
LOS
LOF AIS
AIS PDH
Equipment
D-Bit
BER 10-3 AIS

BER 10-6 PDH
Equipment
D-Bit
N-Bit

Plesiochronous Drop & Insert
140 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s
main
OLTU OLTU OLTU OLTU
stand-by
34 - 140 34 - 140 34 - 140 34 - 140
8 - 34 8 - 34 8 - 34 8 - 34
2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8
1,2 ................. 64 1,2 ................. 64
Line Terminating Drop & Insert Station Line Terminating

Unit Unit

The Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Why SDH Why SDH
 Simpler multiplexing
(low SDH level can be directly identified from higher SDH level)
 Simple D&I of traffic channels

(direct access to lower level systems without synchronization)
 Allows mixing of ANSI and ETSI PDH systems
 SDH is open for new applications

(It can carry PDH, ATM, HDTV, MAN, IP...)
 SDH provides TMN (ECCs)

(for centralized network control)

Synchronous Network Structure
140Mbit/s
STM-1
2Mbit/s TM
ADM
STM-1, STM-4
140Mbit/s
2Mbit/s ADM STM-4/-16 ADM
34Mbit/s
ATM 34Mbit/s
8Mbit/s
Switch STM-1
2Mbit/s
DXC
LAN
DSC
ADM : Add Drop Multiplexer 2Mbit/s STM-1 / STS-3c Gateway to SONET
DXC : Digital Cross Connect 34Mbit/s
TM : Terminal Multiplexer 140Mbit/s
DSC: Digital Switching Center STM-1
LAN: Local Area Network STM-4

Path Denominations
Lower Order Path

Higher Order Path
Multiplex
Section
Regenerator
Sections VC-2
VC-12 VC-3 VC-4 VC-4 VC-3 VC-12
VC-1
SMX
SMX
Reg
VC-2 VC-4 VC-4 VC-2
VC-1 VC-3 VC-3 VC-1
STM-n STM-n
RSOH RSOH
STM-n MSOH
VC-4/3 POH
VC-1/2/3 POH

Network Node Interface (NNI)
SDH CC SDH SDH
DEMUX
PDH PDH
DEMUX
MUX /
MUX /
Reg.
NNI NNI NNI
The Network Node Interface (NNI) ITU-T Rec.:

specifications are necessary to G.707 Synchronous Multiplex Structure
enable interconnection of G.703 Electrical characteristic
synchronous digital network elements G.957 Optical interface characteristic
for transport of payloads

Bit Rates, Frame Structure and Interfaces
in SDH

STM-1 Frame Structure
270 Columns (Bytes)
270
transmit
1 9 row by row
1
RSOH
3
4 AU Pointer Payload
5 (transport capacity)
MSOH
RSOH: Regenerator section overhead

MSOH: Multiplex section overhead
Payload: Area for information transport
Transport capacity of one Byte: 64 kbit/s
Frame capacity: 270 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s
Frame repetition time: 125 µs

270 Columns (Bytes)

1 9 270
1
RSOH AU-4
3
4 AU Pointer
5 VC-4
MSOH
VC-4 POH
C-4
9

Higher SDH Bitrates
STM-1 #1 11111 STM-4
STM-1 #2 22222 12341234123412 . . . .
STM-1 #3 33333
44444
STM-1 #4
B1 B1
B2 B2
SOH termination New SOH
The STM-4/16/64 bit rate is obtained as integer multiples of the STM-1 tributary bit rate.
Clock offset at the tributary side is taken into consideration by pointer adaptation on the
STM-n output signal.

STM-4 SOH
36 bytes Payload
A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 J0 Z0 Z0 Z0 X X X X X X X X
B1 E1 F1 X X X X X X X X X X X X
D1 D2 D3 X
A U Pointers
B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D5
D7 D8 D9
D D D
10 11 12
S1 M1 E2 X X X X X X X X X X X X
#1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4 #1 #2 #3 #4
B1 and B2 bytes are being recalculated

Bytes E1, F1, K1, K2, D1 to D3 and D4 to D12 are taken from tributary #1

Basic Elements of STM-1

Synchronous Network
Path
Multiplex Section Multiplex Section
Reg. Section Regenerator Section Regenerator Section
SDH CC SDH SDH
DEMUX
PDH DEMUX
PDH
MUX /
MUX /
Reg.
back-up line
clock clock
clock
Parity Bytes B2 B2
B1 B1 B1
B3
Comm.
Channels
F2 E2, D4 ... D12 E1, F1, D1 ... D3

Embedded Overhead Bytes
STM-1 SOH
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X
B1 E1 F1 X X VC-3/4 POH
D1 D2 D3 J1
AU - PTR H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 B3
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
C2
D4 D5 D6
G1
D7 D8 D9 VC-11/12/ 2 POH
F2
D10 D11 D12
S1 M 1 E2 X X H4 V5
F3 J2
K3 N2
Media dependent bytes
N1 K4
X Reserved for national use
SOH: Section overhead RSOH

POH: Path overhead Pointer
P O H
MSOH
The overheads (SOH, POH) are used for maintenance and Payload
supervision of the SDH transmission network.

Functions of Regenerator Section Overhead
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
B1
D1
E1
D2
F1
D3
 Frame Alignment
AU - Pointer (A1, A2)
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6
D7
D10
D8
D11
D9
D12
 Section Trace
S1 M1 E2 (J0 Identfication
of regenerator source)
 Parity check
(B1 calculated by regenerator and multiplexers)
 Data communication channels

(D1...D3, F1 between regenerators)
 Voice communication channels

(E1 between regenerators)

Functions of Multiplexer Section Overhead
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
B1 E1 F1
D1 D2 D3  Parity check (B2)
AU - Pointer
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2  Alarm information (K2)
D4 D5 D6
D7
D10
D8
D11
D9
D12
 Remote error indication (M1,K2)
S1 M1 E2
 Automatic protection switching

(K1, K2 Bytes)
 Data communication channels

(D4 to D12 between multiplexers)
 Clock source information (S1)
 Voice communications channels

(E2 between multiplexers)

Functions of Path Overhead
VC-3/4 POH Parity check
J1 B3, V5/ BIP-2 calculated by path terminating point
B3
C2 VC-11/12/2
G1 POH Alarm and performance information
F2 (V5, G1)
H4 V5
J2
F3
K4 N2 Structure of the VC
N1 K4 Signal label C2
 Multiframe indication for TUs (H4)
 User communications channel

between path elements (F2, F3)
 Identification of the Path Source

(Path Trace J1, J2)

Functions and Characteristics of the
Individual Elements of NNI
• The Container (C)

– Basic packaging unit for tributary signals (PDH)
– Synchronous to the STM-1
– Bitrate adaptation is done via a positive stuffing procedure
– Adaptation of synchronous tributaries by fixed stuffing bits
– Bit by bit stuffing
• The Virtual Container (VC)
– Formation of the Container by adding of a POH (Path Overhead)
– Transport as a unit through the network (SDH)
– A VC containing several VCs has also a pointer area

Functions and Characteristics of the
Individual Elements of the NNI
• The Tributary Unit (TU)
– Is formed via adding a pointer to the VC
• The Tributary Unit Group (TUG)
– Combines several TUs for a new VC
• The Administrative Unit (AU)
– Is shaped if a pointer is allocated to the VC formed at last
• The Syncronous Transport Module Level 1 (STM-1)
– Formed by adding a Section Overhead (SOH) to AUs
– Clock justification through positive-zero-negative stuffing in the
AU pointer area
– byte by byte stuffing

Overhead Byte Functionality
SOH A1, A2 Frame synchronisation
B1, B2 Parity bytes for transmission error monitoring
J0 Regenerator section trace
D1... D3 Regenerator section DCC
D4.. D12 Multiplex section DCC
E1, E2 Orderwire for voice communication
F1 User channel for maintenance purposes (data, voice)
K1, K2 Automatic protection switching (APS)
S1 Synchronisation status message
M1 MS-REI (remote error idication)
VC-3/4 J1 Higher order path trace

POH B3 Path parity byte for error monitoring
C2 Signal Label (composition of payload)
G1 Path status and performance
F2, F3 Path user channels
H4 Payload specific byte
K3 Automatic protection switching (APS)
N1 Network operator byte (Tandem Connection Monit.)
VC-1/2 V5 Error check, path status, signal label

POH J2 Lower order path trace
N2 Network operator byte (Tandem Connection Monit.)
K4 Automatic protection switching (APS)

The way of integrating PDH signals into STM-1
Plesiochronous signal 140Mbit/s
Container
Container C4
Path Overhead
Virtual
Virtual Container
Container VC-4
Pointer
Administrative
Administrative Unit
Unit AU-4
Section Overhead
Synchronous
Synchronous Transport
Transport Module
Module STM-1

Pointers
The pointer technology provides a means to accommodate timing differences at SDH
networks.
The pointer indicates the start of the payload within a STM-1frame.
STM-1
AU-Pointer
VC-4
1 TU-
PTR
VC-4 POH
VC-12
VC-12
POH

Use of the AU-4 Pointer Area, Coding
H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3
NDF, Pointer Opportunity for Opportunity for

mapping struc, inc/dec negative stuffing positive stuffing
pointer inc/dec IDIDIDID (more capacity) (less capacity)
J1
C4 payload
Pointer interpretation : H1 byte H2 byte
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
New data flag (NDF) disabled : 0 1 1 0

New data flag enabled : 1 0 0 1
AU/TU type AU-4/TU-3 : 1 0
AU/TU type AU-3/TU-3 : 0 1
AU-4 pointer 0...782 : X X X X X X X X X X
TU-3 pointer 0...764 : X X X X X X X X X X
Null pointer indication (NPI) : 1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

Negative Justification
RSOH
H1 H2 H3 Start of VC-4
Actual pointer
MSOH
125µs
RSOH
Pointer with
inverted D bits H1 H2 H3
MSOH
250µs
RSOH
H1 H2 negative justification byte (data)
MSOH
375µs
New pointer RSOH
H1 H2 H3
MSOH
500µs

Pointer justification
frame n-1
frame n AU-Pointer
frame n+1
AU-Pointer

Mapping 140 Mbit/s
Container C-4 contains a 140 Mbit/s PDH Tributary
9 261
RSOH
AU Pointer 260
J1
B3
MSOH C2
G1 20 x 13 bytes per row
F2
H4 C-4
Z3 140 Mbit/s
K3
Z5
C-4 transport capacity: 260 x 9 x 64 kbit/s = 149.760 kbit/s

Mapping of a 140 Mbit/s Tributary into VC-4
The figure shows one row of the VC-4
J1 W 96 I X 96 I Y 96 I Y 96 I Y 96 I
X 96 I Y 96 I Y 96 I Y 96 I X 96 I
Y 96 I Y 96 I Y 96 I X 96 I Y 96 I
Y 96 I Y 96 I X 96 I Y 96 I Z 96 I
W =IIIIIIII Y = RRRRRRRR X = CRRRROOO Z = I I I I I I SR
I = Information bit R = Fixed stuffing bit O = Overhead bit

S = Justification opportunity bit C = Justification control bit

Mapping 34 Mbit/s
Container C-4 contains 3 times a 34 Mbit/s PDH Tributary (ETSI structure)
9 261
RSOH
AU Pointer 260
J1
H1 H1 H1
B3
MSOH C2
H2 H2 H2
J1 VC-3 #3
G1 H3 H3 H3 B3 J1 VC-3 #2
F2 C2 B3 J1 VC-3 #1
H4 G1 C2 B3
Z3 fixed stuffing F2 G1 C2
K3 H4 F2 G1
Z5 Z3 H4 F2
C3
VC-4 POH
K3 Z3 H4 C-3
Z5 K3 Z3 34 Mbit/s
Z5 K3
Z5
VC-3 POH
84
C-3 transport capacity: 84 X 9 x 64 kbit/s = 48.384 kBit/s

Mappings 2 Mbit/s
RSOH
AU pointer
MSOH VC-4
TUG-3
TUG-2
TU-12
Tu pointer
VC-12

Mapping and Multiplexing (1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10...........................................261
RSOH J1
B3
S T U F F I N G
S T U F F I N G
C2
AU-4 Pointer
G1
F2
H4
MSOH Z3
K3
Z5 A B C A B C A A B C
. ...... . ...... . ......
1 TUG-3 86 1 TUG-3 86 TUG-3

1 86
(A) (B) (C)

Mapping and Multiplexing (2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10...........................................86
TUG-3 N
NPI: Null Pointer Indication
S T U F F I N G
P
I 1001 XX11 1110 0000 XXXX XXXX
S T U F F I N G
A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 A2 E3 F3 G3
123 1231231 23 123 123123123 123 123123123

TUG-2 TUG-2 TUG-2
(A) (B) (G)
TU-12s occupy
36 bytes per
TU-12 ..... TU-12 TU-12 ..... TU-12 TU-12 ..... TU-12 frame
#1 #3 #1 #3 #1 #3

Mapping 2 Mbit/s (asynchronous)
VC-4 POH
V4
VC-12 Structure:
XXX XX00 H4
V5 Payload
R 35 bytes VC-4 Payload
in one
32 bytes (32x8I) VC-4 V1
R XXX XX01 H4 Payload

J2
C1 C2 O O O O R R VC-4 Payload
V5: VC-12 Path Overhead V2
32 bytes (32x8I)
R: fixed stuffing bits
XXX XX10 H4
R J2: Path Trace Payload
140 Bytes
N2 C1/2: Justification control bit VC-4 Payload

C1 C2 O O O O R R O: Overhead bit
N2: Network Operator byte V3
32 bytes (32x8I)
K4: APS
XXX XX11 H4
R S2: Justification opportunity bit Payload
K4 I: Info-bit VC-4 Payload
S2 I I I I I I I
V4
32 bytes (32x8I)
XXX XX00 H4 Payload
R
VC-4 Payload
H4: Indicates the number of Vx
500 µs V1,V2,V3: TU-12 Pointer

VC-4 Contiguous Concatenation
4 x 9 bytes 4 x 261 bytes
STM-4
RSOH
AU-4 Pointers
J1
B3
MSOH
Fixed Stuff
C2
Fixed Stuff
Fixed Stuff
G1
F2 C-4-4c
H4
F3
K3
N1
VC-4-4c
4 x 261 bytes
The first Pointer indicates J1
All other Pointers are set to "Concatenation Indication"
ATM Cell

How to transport 600 Mbit/s ATM via
150 Mbit/s SDH ?
?
VC4
4x VC4
VC4 150 Mbit/s
VC4 150 Mbit/s

150 Mbit/s
Different 150 Mbit/s
delays for VC-4's? 600 Mbit/s
VC-4-4c

Out In
Out In
In Out
In Out
STM-4 port STM-4c port
STM-4c port STM-4 port
ATM switch ATM switch

SDH cross-connect for VC-4

VC-4 virtual Concatenation (Generation)
4 x 9 bytes 4 x 261 bytes
STM-4
RSOH
AU-4 Pointers
J1 J1 J1 J1
B3 B3 B3 B3
MSOH C2 C2 C2 C2
G1 G1 G1 G1
F2 F2 F2 F2 C-4-4vc
H4 H4 H4 H4
F3 F3 F3 F3
K3 K3 K3 K3
N1 N1 N1 N1
Generation: VC-4-4vc
All Pointers are set to the same value 4 x 261 bytes
All VC-4 should be kept in the same STM-4
All VC-4 are transported as individual VC-4's ATM Cell

VC-4 virtual Concatenation (Termination)
J1 J1
J1 B3
B3 J1 B3
VC-4 #1 C2 C2 VC-4 #4
C2 B3
VC-4 #2 G1 VC-4 #3 G1
G1 C2 F2
F2 G1 F2
H4 H4
H4 F2 F3
F3 H4 F3
K3
K3 F3 J1 J1 J1 J1K3 N1
N1 K3 B3 B3 B3 B3N1
N1 C2 C2 C2 C2
G1 G1 G1 G1
F2 F2 F2 F2 C-4-4vc
H4 H4 H4 H4
F3 F3 F3 F3
K3 K3 K3 K3
N1 N1 N1 N1
Termination: VC-4-4vc
VC-4-4vc is reconstructed using the 4 x 261 bytes
(different) pointer values for alignment
ATM Cell

SDH and SONET are International Standards
ATM: 149.760 kbit/s
xN x1
STM-N AU-4 VC-4
STS-3N
AUG STS-3C STS-3C C-4 E4: 139.264 kbit/s
SPE
x3
x1 ATM: 48,384 kbit/s

TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3
x3
x1 x7
STM-0 AU-3 VC-3 DS3: 44.736 kbit/s
STS-1 C-3
STS-1 STS-1 SPE E3 : 34.368 kbit/s
x7
TUG-2 x1 TU-2 VC-2
VT C-2 DS2: 6.312 kbit/s
VT-6 VT-SPE
group
TU-12 VC-12
SDH ITU-T G.707 x3
VT-2 VT-SPE
C-12 E1: 2.048 kbit/s
x4
SONET BELLCORE GR.253 TU-11 VC-11

ANSI T1.105 VT-1.5 VT-SPE
C-11 DS1: 1.544 kbit/s

SDH Network Elements

SDH Network Elements
Terminal Multiplexer
PDH & Applications:

STM-n
STM-m Point-to-Point
Tributaries Transmission Systems
m<n (STM-1, STM-4, STM-16)
SDH Repeater
Applications:
STM-n STM-n
Line Signal Regeneration
in Point-to-Point and Ring
Networks

Add Drop Multiplexer
ADM
WEST EAST
STM-1/4 STM-1/4
......
Tributary Ports : n x 2 Mbit/s ( 34 Mbit/s)

Synchronous Cross Connect
2.4 Gbit/s 2.4 Gbit/s
16x SDH
16x
Multiplexer
622 Mbit/s 4x 622 Mbit/s
4x
155 Mbit/s
155
VC4
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 2 VC12 2
2 VC12 2 34
140 2 VC12 2
140 Mbit/s 2 VC12 2 140
140 Mbit/s
140 VC4
VC 4 140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s VC4 140
VC 3
34
VC 12 VC3
34 (45)Mbit/s VC3 34 (45)Mbit/s
VC12
VC11
2 (1.5)Mbit/s VC12 2 2 (1.5)Mbit/s

Synchronous Line Equipment
4
16 x 140 Mbit/s 4
Optical STM-16
or 4
Transmit
4 Sync Unit
16 x STM-1
MUX
PC / TMN (Q) Management

Communication Unit
Service Service Channel Unit
Channels SLX 1/16
Data Overhead
Channels Processing Unit
4
16 x 140 Mbit/s 4
STM-16
or 4 Optical
Receive
4 Sync Unit
16 x STM-1 DEMUX

Hybrid Networks Connect Old and
New Technologies
140Mbit/s
STM-1
2Mbit/s TM
ADM
STM-1, STM-4
140Mbit/s
2Mbit/s ADM STM-4/-16 ADM
34Mbit/s
ATM 34Mbit/s
Switch STM-1 8Mbit/s
2Mbit/s
DXC
LAN
2Mbit/s STM-1 / STS-3c Gateway to SONET

ADM : Add Drop Multiplexer
34Mbit/s
DXC : Digital Cross Connect
140Mbit/s
TM : Terminal Multiplexer
STM-1
SDH
STM-4

STM-4
Trunk
Network L 2 Trunk Network
L1
STM-16 SDH
SDH
Network
Network Topology
Topology
STM-1
Trunk Network
Exchange L2
M-1
ST
Local Network
Local
Exchange
FlexMux
Subscriber Mux
Access 64/2M

Synchronization Architecture in SDH

Synchronization Network
Primary Reference Clock

long term: holdover 24h:
PRC
Caesium (Stratum 1) requ : 1 x 10-11
typ : 5 x 10 -12
Rubidium (Stratum 2) requ : 1.6 x 10-8 , 1 x 10-10
typ : 4 x 10 -11 , 2 x 10-11
SSU SSU
Synchronization Supply Unit
SEC SEC SEC

SDH SDH SDH
SDH Equipment Clock
Equip. Equip. Equip.

Synchronization reference model
G.811 G.812 G.812

PRC TNC SSU TNC SSU
G.813 G.813 G.813

SEC SEC SEC
Limits:
Max. 10 x G.812 TNC

Max. 60 x G.813 SEC,
though no more than
20 between 2 TNCs

Synchronization of SDH Network Elements
SDH Network Element
Internal 2 Mbit/s
155 Mbit/s Oscillator
Data Signal Data Signal
± 4.6 ppm
Osc.
Synchronous
SDH Signal
2 048 kHz
Central Clock

Hold-over mode
Phase error [ ns]
100000
10000
1000
100
10
0.01 1 100 10000 Observation interval [s]

Hold-over measured values (TIE)

Which Recommendations define
Synchronization Networks
ITU-T ANSI / Bellcore ETSI
Definitions G.810 T1.101 / GR-253 ETS 300 462-1

Network G.825 T1.105 / GR-253 ETS 300 462-3
Primary Reference Clocks G.811 T1.101 ETS 300 462-6
Synchron. Supply Clocks (ST2) G.812 T1.101 ETS 300 462-4
Equipment Clocks (ST3) G.813 (G.81s) GR-253 ETS 300 462-5

Monitoring, Maintenance and Control Functions
in SDH

EVENTS SDH EVENTS SONET
Phys./Reg.
Line (L) Phys./Section

LOS Loss Of Signal LOS Loss Of Signal
TSE Test Sequence Error (Bit Err.) TSE Test Sequence Error
LSS Loss of Sequence Synchron. LSS Loss of Sequence Synchr.
Sect.
LTI Loss of incoming Timing Ref. LTI Loss of inc. TimingRef
OOF Out Of Frame OOF Out Of Frame
LOF Loss Of Frame LOF Loss Of Frame
B1 Regenerator Section BIP Err. B1 Section BIP Errors
Higher Order Path Mux Sect.

B2 Multiplex Section BIP Err. B2 Line BIP Errors
MS-AIS Multiplex Section AIS AIS-L Line AIS
MS-RDI Mux Sect. Remote Defect Ind. RDI-L Line remote Defect Ind.
MS-REI Mux Sect. Remote Errro Ind. REI-L Line Remote Error Ind.
AU-LOP Loss Of AU Pointer LOP-P SP Loss Of Pointer
AU-NDF New Data Flag AU Pointer NDF-P SP New Data Flag
STS Path (SP)

AU-AIS AU Alarm Ind. Signal AIS-P SP AIS
AU-PJE AU Pointer Just. Event
B3 HO Path BIP Errors B3 SP BIP Errors
HP-UNEQ HO Path Unequipped UNEQ-P SP Unequipped
HP-RDI HO Path Remote Defect Ind. RDI-P SP Remote Deect. Ind.
HP-REI HO Path Remote Error Ind. REI-P SP Remote ERrro Ind.
PDI-P SP Payload Defect Ind.
HP-TIM HO Path Trace Ident. Mismatch TIM-P SP Trace Ident. Mismatch
HP-PLM HO Path Payload Label Mism. PLM-P SP Payload Label Mismatch
TU-LOP Loss Of TU Pointer LOP-V VP Loss Of Pointer
Lower Order Path
TU-NDF New Data Flag TU Pointer NDF-V VP New Data Flag

TU-AIS TU AIS AIS-V VP AIS
VT Path (VP)
TU-LOM Loss Of Multiframe LOM Loss Of Multiframe
BIP-2/B3 LO Path BIP Errors UNEQ-V VP Unequipped
LP-RDI LO Path Remote Defect Ind. RDI-V VP Remote Defect Ind.
LP-REI LO Path Remote Error Ind. REI-V VP Remote Error Ind.
LP-RFI LO Path Remote Failure Ind. RFI-V VP Remote Failure Ind.
PDI-V VP Payload Defect Ind.
LP-TIM LO Path Trace Ident. Mismatch TIM-V VP Trace Ident. Mismatch
LP-PLM LO Path Payload Label Mism. PLM-V VP Payload Label Mism.
LCD Loss of Cell Delineation I.610

HCOR Correctable Header Errors
HUNC Uncorrectable Header Errors
ATM Path
VP-AIS Virtual Path AIS I.610

VP-RDI Virtual Path Remote Defect Indication I.610
VC-AIS Virtual Channel AIS I.610
VC-RDI Virtual Channel Remot Defect Indication I.610
Vx-AIS Virtual Channel AIS & Virtual, Path AIS simultan. (O.191)
Vx-RDI Virtual Channel RDI & Virtual, Path RDI simultan. (O.191)
LOC Loss Of Continuity I.610

Frame Areas Covered by Parity Bytes
Parity bytes providing a means to supervise the transmission
quality of a life STM-N signal !
B1:
RSOH - Supervision of the
whole STM-1 frame
Payload - Covers the regenerator
MSOH sections of a trans-
mission system
B2:
RSOH - Covers the multiplex
AU-PTR sections (from network
Payload node to network node)
MSOH
B3:
RSOH - Covers the transmission
paths from beginning to
Payload
Payload the end (tributary to
MSOH tributary)

Parity Supervison Procedure
Transmit Side frame n+1 frame n
BIP-8 B1
Receive Side
frame n+1 frame n
recalculation at Rx side
Comparison
with the Tx side value BIP-8 B1

How to Built a Parity Byte ?
• Bit interleaved data field structure of the area covered
– Field width: BIP-24: 24 bits (B2)
– BIP-8: 8 bits (B1, B3)
– BIP-2: 2 bits (V5)
• Column by column parity check for even numbers of "1"
Example: 24 bit interleaved parity check (BIP-24)

Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3
1 11 1 11 11 1 11 11 1 01 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
even numbers of "1"
801 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
BIP-24 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

SDH Maintenance Interactions
Regenerator Multiplex Higher Order Lower Order
Section Section Path Path
"1"
LOS/LOF AIS
(J0) RS-TIM
(B1) BIP Err.
MS-AIS "1"
(K2) AIS
MS-BIP Err.
(B2)
(M1) MS-REI
MS-RDI
(K2)
AU-AIS "1"
AU-LOP
HP-UNEQ "1"
(C2) AIS
(J1) HP-TIM
HP-BIP Err.
(B3)
HP-REI
(G1)
HP-RDI
(G1)
TU-AIS "1"
TU-LOP
LOM
(H4)
(C2) HP-PLM
LP-UNEQ "1"
(V5) AIS
LP-TIM
(J2)
LP-BIP Err.
(V5)
(V5) LP-REI
(V5) LP-RDI
"1"
(V5) LP-PLM
AIS

Maintenance Signal Definitions (1)
LOS Drop of incomming optical power level causes BER of 10 -3 or worse

OOF A1, A2 incorrect for more than 625 us
LOF If OOF persists of 3ms
B1 Error Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-8
MS-AIS K2 (bits 6,7,8) =111 for 3 or more frames
MS-RDI If MS-AIS or excessive errors are detected, K2(bits 6,7,8)=110
MS-REI M1: Binary coded count of incorrect interleavedbit blocks
AU-AIS All "1" in the entire AU including AU pointer
AU-LOP 8 to 10 NDF enable or 8 to 10 invalid pointers
HP-UNEQ C2="0" for 5 or more frames
HP-TIM J1: Trace identifier mismatch
HP-SLM C2: Signal label mismatch
HP-LOM H4 values (2 to 10 times) unequal to multiframesequence

HP-RDI G1 (bit 5)=1, if an invalid signal is received in VC-4/VC-3
HP-REI G1 (bits 1,2,3,4) = binary coded B3 errors

Maintenance Signal Definitions (2)
TU-AIS All "1" in the entire TU incl. TU pointer
TU-LOP 8 to 10 NDF enable or 8 to 10 invalid pointers
LP-UNEQ VC-3: C2 = all "0" for >=frames;
VC-12: V5 (bits 5,6,7) = 000 for >=5 frames
LP-TIM VC-3: J1 mismatch; VC-12: J2 mismatch
LP-SLM VC-3: C2 mismatch; VC-12: V5 (bits 5,6,7) mismatch
BIP-2 Err Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-2 (V5)
LP-RDI V5 (bit 8) = 1, if TU-2 path AIS or signal failure received
LP-REI V5 (bit 3) = 1, if >=1 errors were detected by BIP-2
LP-RFI V5 (bit 4) = 1, if a failure is declared
Abbreviations:
AU Administration unit LP Low path TIM Trace identifier

HP High path OOF Out of frame TU Tributary unit
LOF Loss of frame REI Remote error indication (FEBE) UNEQ Unequipped
LOM Loss of miltiframe RDI Remote defect indication (FERF) VC Virtual
LOP Loss of pointer RFI Remote failure indication C container
LOS Loss of signal SLM Signal label mismatch

Perfomance Parameter
ITU-T G.821
ES Errored Second Second with > 1 bit error
SES Severely Errored Second Second with BER > 1 x 10E-3
ITU-T G.826
ES Errored Second Second with> 1errored block
SES Severely Errored Second Second with > 30% errored blocks
or > 1 defect
BBE Background Block Error Errored block, not occuring as
part of SES
UAS Unavailable Seconds:
Time
10 sec 10 sec
Unavailability < 10 Availability
detected sec detected
Unavailable Seconds
Unavailable Seconds

Jitter and Wander

Jitter and Wander Definitions
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Time Line
1
UI
Bit Sequence 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Ideal Signal (NRZ)
Actual Signal
(with Jitter
and Wander)
Phase Variations (Jitter or Wander) in a Digital Transmission System

Sources of Jitter and Wander
• Interference signals
• Pattern dependent jitter
• Phase noise
• Delay variation
• Stuffing and wait time jitter
• Mapping jitter
• Pointer jitter

Jitter and Wander Measurement Method
Clock
Input
Jitter
Signal Pattern HP LP and
Input
N f Wander
Clock 1 V Result
Evaluation
Pattern-Clock Frequency Phase Detector Filters Peak-to-Peak

Converter Divider Detector
Ext. Reference Clock Input

(Wander Measurement) ~ 1 Hz
f
V
Phase Detector Low Pass Filter VCO
Reference Clock Generator (PLL)

Jitter Measurement Filters
Amplitude / dB
Values according to ITU-T Rec. G.825 and G.813
STM-1: 500 Hz 65 kHz 1.3 MHz
STM-4: 1 kHz 250 kHz 5 MHz
Wander
STM-16: 5 kHz 1 MHz 20 MHz
10 Hz
Frequency / Hz
Total Jitter High

Jitter including Frequency
lower Jitter
Frequency
Components
Max. Jitter Amplitude: 1,5UI 0,15UI

Definition of Jitter Peak-to-Peak Amplitude
Jitter / UIpp
Jitter Time
Amplitude
(PP)
Measurement Period

Jitter and Wander Measurements
• Network output jitter (G.825)
• Network element output jitter (G.783, G.813)
• Jitter transfer function (G.958)
• Jitter and Wander tolerance (G.825, G.813)

WANDER Definitions
Wander Long-term timing variation (below 10 Hz)
TIE "Time Interval Error"
MTIE "Max. Time Interval Error"
TDEV "Time Deviation", timing variation as a function of

integration time. Provides information about the
spectral content.
TVAR "Time Variation", square of TDEV
ADEV "Allen Deviation"
MADEV "Modified Allen Deviation"
Definitions specified in ITU-T Rec. G.810

TIE and MTIE Definitions
Wander / UI
e nting
s t
Time variation against reference
r e pre Offse
pe cy
TIE max Slo quen
Fre
MTIE TIE at t End
TIE min
Time
Observation Period
Start End

Results (MTIE) compared to Standards

Network resilience

Linear Protection (G.783)
W
1 + 1 Protection scheme
P
W
P 1 : 1 Protection scheme
W
W 1 : N Protection scheme

Linear Protection (G.783)
W
1 + 1 Protection scheme
P
W
P 1 : 1 Protection scheme
W
W 1 : N Protection scheme

Unidirectional and Bidirectional Rings
Traffic A -> B Traffic A -> B
ADM ADM
A B -> A A
ADM B ADM ADM B ADM
ADM ADM longer

Traffic B -> A
path
Unidirectional Ring Bidirectional Ring
traffic between A-B - use the shorter or longer path
uses the entire length of ring - increase number of paths
- short path : traffic
long path : protection

Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring
Fiber 1 : unidirectional
A Fiber 2 : unidirectional
F Tributary B
E Tributary C

F Tributary B
E Tributary C

F Tributary B
E Tributary C

Unidirectional Line-Switched Ring
Working
A Protection
F Tributary B
E Tributary C
Working
D

Working
A Protection
F Tributary B
E Tributary C
Working
D

Working
A Protection
F Tributary B
E Tributary C
Working
D

Two fiber Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring
(BLSR)
Fiber 1
A Fiber 2
F Tributary working
B
protection
E Tributary C

Two fiber Bidirectional Line Switched Ring
(BLSR)
Fiber 1
A Fiber 2
F Tributary working
B
protection
E Tributary C

Two fiber Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring
(BLSR)
Fiber 1
A Fiber 2
working
F Tributary B protection
E Tributary C

TMN in SDH networks

Network Management
Basic tasks of network management:
Administrative functions:
Operation: Network supervising (anomalies, defects)

Network linking (reserve links, additional links)
Maintenance: Identifing and elimination of impairments
Planning and commissioning: Network configuration
Operative functions: Supervision of network functions

Repair
Installation
Self test

TMN Overlay
Q Central Q
OS
Q
Q
Local
OS
Q
Q ECC
CC CC
Q ECC
ADM
ADM
ADM
ADM

Telecommunication Management Network
(TMN) Overlay
Management of :
Performance
Central X Central X
Faults
OS OS
Configuration
NE
Q3 Accounting
Manager Q3 Security
NE Local
Manager OS
STM-N
Q3
Q3
Q ECC Q ECC
ADM DXC STM-N STM-N DXC
ADM
ADM
ADM Data Communication Network : X.25, ISDN, LAN

TMN Reference Configuration
Operating
System
OS F
Workstation
Q3
Data Communication Network

DCN
Q3
Q3 Mediation
Device
MD F
Q2 or Q1 Workstation
Local Communication Network

LCN F
Qx Workstation
Network
Element
Network MD: Conversion between different interfaces
NE Element (Information Conversion Function ICF:
NE manufacturer-specific information model ->
operator specific information model)

Interoperability in TMN
X TMN TMN
Operations
X
Operations Interoperability problems because of
System System – multi vendor networks
– heterogenous technology
– different standards for protocols and
Q3
management information
Q3
QMonitor provides
– easy adaptation to the interface
QMonitor (autoconfiguration)
based on
DominoWAN – decoding of protocols and management
DominoLAN information
DA-30 – automatic detection of errors in management
Qecc Qecc information
– SDH/SONET Qecc access with transmission
analyzers (e.g. ANT-20)
Qecc

SDH Benefits
Reduced equipment costs
multi vendor compatibility
Lower maintenance costs

built-in defect and anomaly monitoring
Future proof equipment

SDH is the physical layer for BISDN
Efficient drop / insert facilities

ADM (add&drop multiplexers), DXC (digital cross connectors)
TMN capabilities
Built-in DCN (data comm. network), DCC/ECC
More flexibility in provision of services

adding transmission capacity by routing on demand

1999/2000 :
Future Trends - WDM Systems
STM16/OC-48, 40 
STM64/OC-192, 16  155Mio
64kb/s: 9,7Mio 19,4Mio 38,7Mio
STM256
10T OC-768,
STM64 320 
OC-192,
STM64
320 
OC-192,
1000G
annels
STM64 160  l e ch
l ti p
mu
OC-192,
D M with
80  DW
100G
10 TDM 40 80 Optical
GB/s GB/s networking
GB/S networking
10G
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
2000: 100 x 10G 1 Tb/s
64kb/s: 121000 484000 2001: 400 x 10G 4 Tb/s
2004: 400 x 40G 16Tb/s
Driver - converging networks
IP is the Universal
Convergence Layer
IP,Services Functions Multi-Service

will merge, transport
ATM
various
SONET Optical
migration networking
DWDM scenarios
Fiber Fiber
The existing network: DWDM is main long
reliable, but unaffordable distance + Metro
transmission
technology
Let‘s summarize !
• Please name the PDH bitrates !

• Please explain „stuffing“ !
• When will „stuffing“ be applied ?
• What is the reaction of a Network element after an „LOS“ alarm ?
• What is the meaning of an „LOF“ alarm ?
• Is it possible to drop an 2Mbit/s signal out of an 140Mbit/s line ?
• Why not ?
• Please name the SDH bitrates !
• Explain the way an PDH signal is integrated in an STM-1 !

Let‘s summarize !
• Please name the different sections of an SDH connection !

• What is a parity byte ?
• Please explain the way to build a parity byte !
• Which parity bytes do you know ?
• Which overhead bytes are used for data communication ?
• What is a „pointer“ ?
• What is a „pointer“ used for ?

Let‘s summarize !
• Please name the SDH network elements !

• What are they used for ?
• Please explain how a synchronization network looks like !
• Explain the possibilities to synchronize a NE !
• What is a holdover mode ?
• Which byte is used to transport an HP-UNEQ ?
• Please explain „Jitter“ and „Wander“ !
• How can jitter be defined ?
• Please explain the terms TIE and MTIE ?
• Please explain the term TDEV ?

Let‘s summarize !
• Please name the main Jitter and Wander measurements !

• Explain these measurements !
• Please explain the methods of linear protection !
• What kind of ring structures do you know ?
• What are the the advantages of a TMN controlled network ?
• How is the TMN interface called ?
• Please explain „DWDM“ !

SDH Basics: The Keepers of Communications

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SDH Basics

• Current transmission technologies (PDH)

Copyright by Wolfgang Sunk, ACTERNA Austria GmbH All rights reserved.

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

2048 kbit/s (+/-50ppm)

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

The Keepers of Communications

Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

The Keepers of Communications

2.448 kbit/s Multiframe, ITU-T G.704

sub multiframe 1 sub multiframe 2

Si: Reserved for international use

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based

The Keepers of Communications

sub multiframe 1 sub multiframe 2

Si: Reserved for international use

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

139.264 kbit/s; frame length 2928 bit; 21 us; ITU-T G.751

12 4 472 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 484 4 4 480

The Keepers of Communications

BER 10-3 AIS

The Keepers of Communications

140 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s

2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8

1,2 ................. 64 1,2 ................. 64

Line Terminating Drop & Insert Station Line Terminating

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

 Simple D&I of traffic channels

 Allows mixing of ANSI and ETSI PDH systems

 SDH is open for new applications

 SDH provides TMN (ECCs)

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

Lower Order Path

The Keepers of Communications

SDH CC SDH SDH

NNI NNI NNI

The Network Node Interface (NNI) ITU-T Rec.:

The Keepers of Communications

The Keepers of Communications

RSOH: Regenerator section overhead

The Keepers of Communications

270 Columns (Bytes)

The Keepers of Communications

STM-1 #1 11111 STM-4

STM-1 #2 22222 12341234123412 . . . .

The Keepers of Communications

B1 and B2 bytes are being recalculated

The Keepers of Communications