CCNA Presentation

Data Networks
Sharing data through the use of floppy disks is not an efficient

or cost-effective manner in which to operate businesses.
Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address

the following three problems:
• How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources
• How to communicate efficiently
• How to set up and manage a network
Businesses realized that networking technology could

increase productivity while saving money.
1
Networking Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is

referred to as a device.
These devices are broken up into two classifications.

• end-user devices
• network devices
End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and

other devices that provide services directly to the user.
Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-
user devices together to allow them to communicate.
2
Network Interface Card
A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board
that provides network communication capabilities to and
from a personal computer. Also called a LAN adapter.
3
Repeater
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater does not
perform intelligent routing.
4
Hub
Hubs concentrate
connections. In other words,
they take a group of hosts
and allow the network to see
them as a single unit.
This is done passively,

without any other effect on
the data transmission.
Active hubs not only

concentrate hosts, but they
also regenerate signals.
5
Bridge
Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as
perform basic data transmission management. Bridges, as
the name implies, provide connections between LANs. Not
only do bridges connect LANs, but they also perform a check
on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or
not. This makes each part of the network more efficient.
6
Workgroup Switch
Workgroup switches add

more intelligence to data
transfer management.
Switches can determine

whether data should remain
on a LAN or not, and they
can transfer the data to the
connection that needs that
data.
7
Router
Routers have all capabilities of the previous devices. Routers
can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and manage data
transfers.They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them
to connect LANs that are separated by great distances.
8
LANs, MANs, & WANs
One early solution was the creation of local-area network

(LAN) standards which provided an open set of guidelines for
creating network hardware and software, making equipment
from different companies compatible.
What was needed was a way for information to move

efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but also
from one business to another.
The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks

(MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).
9
Examples of Data Networks
10
LANs
11
Wireless LAN Organizations
and Standards
In cabled networks, IEEE is the prime issuer of standards for
wireless networks. The standards have been created within the
framework of the regulations created by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).
A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is Direct

Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
12
WANs
13
Virtual Private Network
A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter
can access the network of the company headquarters through the
Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuter’s PC
and a VPN router in the headquarters.
14
15
Why do we need the OSI Model?
To address the problem of networks increasing in size

and in number, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched many network
schemes and recognized that there was a need to
create a network model that would help network
builders implement networks that could communicate
and work together and therefore, released the OSI
reference model in 1984.
16
Don’t Get Confused.
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
OSI - Open System Interconnection
IOS - Internetwork Operating System
The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more

efficient. The “ISO” acronym is correct as shown.
To avoid confusion, some people say “International

Standard Organization.”
17
The OSI Reference Model
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
18
Layer 7 - The Application Layer
7 Application This layer deal with
networking applications.
6 Presentation
5 Session Examples:
4 Transport • Email
• Web browsers
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - User Data
1 Physical
19
Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer
7 Application This layer is responsible
for presenting the data in
6 Presentation
the required format which
5 Session may include:
4 Transport • Encryption
• Compression
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - Formatted Data
1 Physical
20
Layer 5 - The Session Layer
7 Application This layer establishes,
manages, and terminates
6 Presentation
sessions between two
5 Session communicating hosts.
4 Transport
Example:
3 Network • Client Software
2 Data Link ( Used for logging in)
1 Physical PDU - Formatted Data
21
Layer 4 - The Transport Layer
7 Application This layer breaks up the data
from the sending host and
6 Presentation
then reassembles it in the
5 Session receiver.
4 Transport
It also is used to insure
3 Network reliable data transport
2 Data Link across the network.
1 Physical
PDU - Segments
22
Layer 3 - The Network Layer
7 Application Sometimes referred to as the
“Cisco Layer”.
6 Presentation
5 Session Makes “Best Path
4 Transport Determination” decisions
based on logical addresses
3 Network (usually IP addresses).
2 Data Link
PDU - Packets
1 Physical
23
Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
7 Application This layer provides reliable
transit of data across a
6 Presentation
physical link.
5 Session
4 Transport Makes decisions based on
physical addresses (usually
3 Network MAC addresses).
2 Data Link
PDU - Frames
1 Physical
24
Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
This is the physical media
7 Application through which the data,
6 Presentation represented as electronic
signals, is sent from the
5 Session
source host to the
4 Transport destination host.
3 Network
Examples:
2 Data Link • CAT5 (what we have)
1 Physical • Coaxial (like cable TV)
• Fiber optic
PDU - Bits 25
26
Why Another Model?
Although the OSI reference model is universally
recognized, the historical and technical open standard
of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol

stack make data communication possible between any
two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the
speed of light.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the

TCP/IP reference model because it wanted a network
that could survive any conditions, even a27nuclear war.
Don’t Confuse the Models
7 Application
6 Presentation Application
5 Session
4 Transport Transport
3 Network Internet
2 Data Link Network
1 Physical Access
28
2 Models
Side-By-Side
7 Application
6 Presentation Application
5 Session
4 Transport Transport
3 Network Internet
2 Data Link Network
1 Physical Access
29
The Application Layer
The application
layer of the
TCP/IP model
handles high-
level protocols,
issues of
representation,
encoding, and
dialog control.
30
The Transport Layer
The transport layer provides transport services from

the source host to the destination host. It constitutes
a logical connection between these endpoints of the
network. Transport protocols segment and
reassemble upper-layer applications into the same
data stream between endpoints.
The transport layer data stream provides end-to-end
transport services. 31
The Internet Layer
The purpose of the Internet layer is to
select the best path through the network for
packets to travel. The main protocol that
functions at this layer is the Internet
Protocol (IP). Best path determination and
packet switching occur at this layer.
32
The Network Access Layer
The network access layer is also called the host-to-
network layer. It the layer that is concerned with all of the
issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a
physical link to the network media. It includes LAN and
WAN details, and all the details contained in the OSI
physical and data-link layers. NOTE: ARP & RARP work
at both the Internet and Network Access Layers.
33
Comparing TCP/IP & OSI Models
NOTE: TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee
reliable delivery of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.
34
Introduction to the Transport Layer
The primary duties of the transport layer, Layer 4 of the OSI

model, are to transport and regulate the flow of information from
the source to the destination, reliably and accurately.
End-to-end control and reliability are provided by sliding

windows, sequencing numbers, and acknowledgments.
35
More on The Transport Layer
The transport layer provides transport services from the

source host to the destination host.
It establishes a logical connection between the endpoints of

the network.
• Transport services include the following basic services:
• Segmentation of upper-layer application data
• Establishment of end-to-end operations
• Transport of segments from one end host to another
end host
• Flow control provided by sliding windows
• Reliability provided by sequence numbers and
acknowledgments 36
Flow Control
As the transport layer sends data segments, it tries to ensure that data is not lost.
A receiving host that is unable to process data as quickly as it arrives could be a
cause of data loss.
Flow control avoids the problem of a transmitting host overflowing the buffers in
the receiving host.
37
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented Layer 4
protocol that provides reliable full-duplex data transmission.
TCP is part of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In a connection-oriented

environment, a connection is established between both ends before the
transfer of information can begin.
TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments, reassembling
them at the destination station, resending anything that is not received,
and reassembling messages from the segments.TCP supplies a virtual
circuit between end-user applications.
The protocols that use TCP include:

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet 38
TCP Segment Format
39
UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the connectionless transport protocol
in the TCP/IP protocol stack.
UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without

acknowledgments or guaranteed delivery. Error processing and
retransmission must be handled by higher layer protocols.
UDP uses no windowing or acknowledgments so reliability, if needed, is

provided by application layer protocols. UDP is designed for applications
that do not need to put sequences of segments together.
The protocols that use UDP include:

• TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)
• DNS (Domain Name System) 40
UDP Segment Format
41
Well Known Port Numbers
The following port numbers should be memorized:
NOTE:
The curriculum forgot to mention one of the most important port numbers.
Port 80 is used for HTTP or WWW protocols. (Essentially access to the internet.)
42
43
Network and Host Addressing
Using the IP address of the
destination network, a router can
deliver a packet to the correct
network.
When the packet arrives at a

router connected to the
destination network, the router
uses the IP address to locate the
particular computer connected to
that network.
Accordingly, every IP address has
two parts. 44
Identifying Address Classes
45
Address Class Prefixes
To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP
addresses are divided into groups called classes.This is classful addressing.
46
Network and Host Division
Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part
and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address
determines the class of the address. There are 5 IP address classes.
47
Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large
networks, with more than 16 million host addresses available.
Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the
network address. The remaining three octets provide for host
addresses.
48
Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of
moderate to large-sized networks.A Class B IP address uses
the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address.
The other two octets specify host addresses.
49
Class C Addresses
The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the

original address classes.This address space was intended to
support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.
50
Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an

IP address. A multicast address is a unique network address that
directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of
IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit
a single stream of data to multiple recipients.
51
Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for
its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been
released for use in the Internet.
52
IP Address Ranges
The graphic below shows the IP address range of the first octet
both in decimal and binary for each IP address class.
53
IPv4
As early as 1992, the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) identified two specific
concerns: Exhaustion of the remaining,
unassigned IPv4 network addresses and the
increase in the size of Internet routing tables.
Over the past two decades, numerous

extensions to IPv4 have been developed.
Two of the more important of these are
subnet masks and classless interdomain
routing (CIDR).
54
Network Address
55
Broadcast Address
56
Network/Broadcast Addresses
at the Binary Level
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network address, which identifies the network.
An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the broadcast address, which is used to send data
to all hosts on the network. Here are some examples:
Class Network Address Broadcast Address
A 100.0.0.0 100.255.255.255
B 150.75.0.0 150.75.255.255
C 200.100.50.0 200.100.50.255 57
Public IP Addresses
Unique addresses are required for each device on a network.
Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information

Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.
InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA).
No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP
address because public IP addresses are global and standardized.
All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.
Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider

(ISP) or a registry at some expense.
58
Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the

impending exhaustion of public IP addresses.As mentioned, public
networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses.
However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may
use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private
network is unique.
59
Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the
network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and
manageable segments, or subnets.
With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B, or

C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design.
Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and
a host field.The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion
into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for
the network administrator.
60
The 32-Bit
Binary IP Address
61
Numbers That Show Up In
Subnet Masks (Memorize Them!)
62
Addressing with Subnetworks
63
Static Assignment of an IP Address
Static assignment
works best on small
networks.
The administrator
manually assigns and
tracks IP addresses
for each computer,
printer, or server on
the intranet.
Network printers,
application servers,
and routers should be
assigned static IP
addresses. 64
ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol)
Host A
ARP Request - Broadcast to all hosts
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
„What is the hardware address for IP address 128.0.10.4?“
ARP Reply
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
SIEMENS
NIXDORF
Host B
IP Address: 128.0.10.4
HW Address: 080020021545
65
Fig. 32 How does ARP work? (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)
66
Fig. 33 The ARP command (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 47)
RARP
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a known MAC addresses

with an IP addresses.
A network device, such as a diskless workstation, might know its MAC address but not
its IP address. RARP allows the device to make a request to learn its IP address.
Devices using RARP require that a RARP server be present on the network to answer
RARP requests.
67
68
Introduction to Routers
A router is a special type of computer. It has the same basic components as a
standard desktop PC. However, routers are designed to perform some very specific
functions. Just as computers need operating systems to run software applications,
routers need the Internetwork Operating System software (IOS) to run configuration
files. These configuration files contain the instructions and parameters that control the
flow of traffic in and out of the routers. The many parts of a router are shown below:
69
RAM
Random Access Memory, also called dynamic RAM (DRAM)
RAM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Stores routing tables

• Holds ARP cache
• Holds fast-switching cache
• Performs packet buffering (shared RAM)
• Maintains packet-hold queues
• Provides temporary memory for the configuration file of the
router while the router is powered on
• Loses content when router is powered down or restarted
70
NVRAM
Non-Volatile RAM
NVRAM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Provides storage for the startup configuration file

• Retains content when router is powered down or
restarted
71
Flash
Flash memory has the following characteristics and
functions:
• Holds the operating system image (IOS)

• Allows software to be updated without removing
and replacing chips on the processor
• Retains content when router is powered down or
restarted
• Can store multiple versions of IOS software
Is a type of electronically erasable, programmable

ROM (EEPROM) 72
ROM
Read-Only Memory
ROM has the following characteristics and functions:
• Maintains instructions for power-on self test

(POST) diagnostics
• Stores bootstrap program and basic operating
system software
• Requires replacing pluggable chips on the
motherboard for software upgrades
73
Interfaces
Interfaces have the following characteristics and functions:
• Connect router to network for frame entry and exit

• Can be on the motherboard or on a separate module
Types of interfaces:
• Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Serial
• Token ring
• ISDN BRI
• Loopback
• Console
• Aux 74
Internal Components of a 2600 Router
75
Cisco IOS
Cisco technology is built around the Cisco
Internetwork Operating System (IOS), which is the
software that controls the routing and switching
functions of internetworking devices.
A solid understanding of the IOS is essential for a

network administrator.
76
The Purpose of Cisco IOS
As with a computer, a router or switch cannot function without
an operating system. Cisco calls its operating system the
Cisco Internetwork Operating System or Cisco IOS.
It is the embedded software architecture in all of the Cisco

routers and is also the operating system of the Catalyst
switches.
Without an operating system, the hardware does not have any

capabilities.
The Cisco IOS provides the following network services:

• Basic routing and switching functions
• Reliable and secure access to networked resources
• Network scalability 77
Router Command Line
Interface
78
Setup Mode
Setup is not intended as the mode for entering complex protocol features in the
router. The purpose of the setup mode is to permit the administrator to install a
minimal configuration for a router, unable to locate a configuration from another
source.
In the setup mode, default answers appear in square brackets [ ] following the
question. Press the Enter key to use these defaults.
During the setup process, Ctrl-C can be pressed at any time to terminate the
process. When setup is terminated using Ctrl-C, all interfaces will be
administratively shutdown.
When the configuration process is completed in setup mode, the following options
will be displayed:
[0] Go to the IOS command prompt without saving this config.

[1] Return back to the setup without saving this config.
[2] Save this configuration to nvram and exit.
Enter your selection [2]: 79
Operation of Cisco IOS Software
The Cisco IOS devices have three distinct operating environments or
modes:
• ROM monitor
• Boot ROM
• Cisco IOS
The startup process of the router normally loads into RAM and executes
one of these operating environments. The configuration register setting can
be used by the system administrator to control the default start up mode for
the router.
To see the IOS image and version that is running, use the show version
command, which also indicates the configuration register setting.
80
Step in Router Initialization
81
82
Router User Interface Modes
The Cisco command-line interface (CLI) uses a hierarchical structure. This
structure requires entry into different modes to accomplish particular tasks.
Each configuration mode is indicated with a distinctive prompt and allows

only commands that are appropriate for that mode.
As a security feature the Cisco IOS software separates sessions into two
access levels, user EXEC mode and privileged EXEC mode. The privileged
EXEC mode is also known as enable mode.
83
Overview of Router Modes
84
Router Modes
85
User Mode Commands
86
Privileged Mode Commands
NOTE:
There are
many more
commands
available in
privileged
mode.
87
CLI Command Modes
All command-line interface (CLI) configuration changes to a Cisco router
are made from the global configuration mode. Other more specific modes
are entered depending upon the configuration change that is required.
Global configuration mode commands are used in a router to apply

configuration statements that affect the system as a whole.
The following command moves the router into global configuration mode
Router#configure terminal (or config t)

Router(config)#
When specific configuration modes are entered, the router prompt changes
to indicate the current configuration mode.
Typing exit from one of these specific configuration modes will return the
router to global configuration mode. Pressing Ctrl-Z returns the router to all
the way back privileged EXEC mode. 88
Configuring a Router’s Name
A router should be given a unique name as one of the
first configuration tasks.
This task is accomplished in global configuration

mode using the following commands:
Router(config)#hostname Aman
Tokyo(config)#
As soon as the Enter key is pressed, the prompt

changes from the default host name (Router) to the
newly configured host name (which is Tokyo in the
example above). 89
Setting
the Clock
with Help
90
Message Of The Day (MOTD)
A message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner can be displayed on all
connected terminals.
Enter global configuration mode by using the command config t
Enter the command

banner motd # The message of the day goes here #.
Save changes by issuing the command copy run start
91
Configuring a Console Password
Passwords restrict access to routers.
Passwords should always be configured for virtual terminal
lines and the console line.
Passwords are also used to control access to privileged EXEC

mode so that only authorized users may make changes to the
configuration file.
The following commands are used to set an optional but

recommended password on the console line:
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-line)#password <password>
Router(config-line)#login
92
Configuring a Modem Password
If configuring a router via a modem you are most likely
connected to the aux port.
The method for configuring the aux port is very similar to

configuring the console port.
Router(config)#line aux 0
93
Configuring Interfaces
An interface needs an IP Address and a Subnet Mask to be configured.
All interfaces are “shutdown” by default.
The DCE end of a serial interface needs a clock rate.
Router#config t
Router(config)#interface serial 0/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 200.100.50.75 255.255.255.240
Router(config-if)#clock rate 56000 (required for serial DCE only)
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Router(config)#int f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 150.100.50.25 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Router(config)#exit
Router#
On older routers, Serial 0/1 would be just Serial 1 and f0/0 would
94 be e0.
s = serial e = Ethernet f = fast Ethernet
Configuring a Telnet Password
A password must be set on one or more of the virtual terminal

(VTY) lines for users to gain remote access to the router using
Telnet.
Typically Cisco routers support five VTY lines numbered 0

through 4.
The following commands are used to set the same password on

all of the VTY lines:
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
95
Examining the show Commands
There are many show commands that can be used to examine the contents of files
in the router and for troubleshooting. In both privileged EXEC and user EXEC
modes, the command show ? provides a list of available show commands. The list
is considerably longer in privileged EXEC mode than it is in user EXEC mode.
show interfaces – Displays all the statistics for all the interfaces on the router.
show int s0/1 – Displays statistics for interface Serial 0/1
show controllers serial – Displays information-specific to the interface hardware
show clock – Shows the time set in the router
show hosts – Displays a cached list of host names and addresses
show users – Displays all users who are connected to the router
show history – Displays a history of commands that have been entered
show flash – Displays info about flash memory and what IOS files are stored there
show version – Displays info about the router and the IOS that is running in RAM
show ARP – Displays the ARP table of the router
show start – Displays the saved configuration located in NVRAM
show run – Displays the configuration currently running in RAM
show protocol – Displays the global and interface specific status 96 of any configured
Layer 3 protocols
The copy run tftp Command
97
The copy tftp run Command
98
99
Anatomy of an IP Packet
IP packets consist of the data from upper layers plus an IP
header. The IP header consists of the following:
100
Introducing Routing
Routing is the process that a router uses to forward packets
toward the destination network. A router makes decisions
based upon the destination IP address of a packet. All devices
along the way use the destination IP address to point the
packet in the correct direction so that the packet eventually
arrives at its destination. In order to make the correct
decisions, routers must learn the direction to remote networks.
101
Configuring Static Routes by
Specifying Outgoing Interfaces
102
Configuring Static Routes by
Specifying Next-Hop Addresses
103
Administrative Distance
The administrative distance is an optional parameter that gives a measure of
the reliability of the route. The range of an AD is 0-255 where smaller
numbers are more desireable.
The default administrative distance when using next-hop address is 1, while

the default administrative distance when using the outgoing interface is 0. You
can statically assign an AD as follows:
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.3.0

255.255.255.0 172.16.4.1 130
Sometimes static routes are used for backup purposes. A static route can be
configured on a router that will only be used when the dynamically learned
route has failed. To use a static route in this manner, simply set the
administrative distance higher than that of the dynamic routing protocol being
used. 104
Configuring Default Routes
Default routes are used to route packets with destinations that do not
match any of the other routes in the routing table.
A default route is actually a special static route that uses this format:
ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [next-hop-address | outgoing interface]
This is sometimes referred to as a “Quad-Zero” route.
Example using next hop address:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.4.1
Example using the exit interface:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0

105 s0/0
Verifying Static
Route Configuration
After static routes are configured it is important to verify
that they are present in the routing table and that routing
is working as expected.
The command show running-config is used to view the

active configuration in RAM to verify that the static route
was entered correctly.
The show ip route command is used to make sure that

the static route is present in the routing table.
106
Trouble Shooting Static
Route Configuration
107
Routing Protocols
108
Routed Protocols
109
Categories of Routing
Protocols
Most routing algorithms can be classified into one of two
categories:
• distance vector
• link-state
The distance vector routing approach determines the direction

(vector) and distance to any link in the internetwork.
The link-state approach, also called shortest path first,

recreates the exact topology of the entire internetwork.
110
Distance Vector
Routing Concepts
111
RIPv1
Distance Vector Routing Protocol,
classful
Distribution of Routing Tables via broadcast

to adjacent routers
Fig. 59 Properties of RIPv1 (TI1332EU02TI_0004 The Network Layer, 81)

Only one kind of metric:
Number of Hops
Connections with different

bandwidth can not be weighted
Routing loops can occur

-> bad convergence in case of a failure
Count to infinity problem

(infinity = 16)
Maximum network size is limited

by the number of hops 112
RIP Characteristics
113
Router Configuration
The router command starts a routing process.
The network command is required because it enables the

routing process to determine which interfaces participate in the
sending and receiving of routing updates.
An example of a routing configuration is:
GAD(config)#router rip
GAD(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0
The network numbers are based on the network class

addresses, not subnet addresses or individual host addresses.
114
Configuring RIP Example
115
Verifying RIP Configuration
116
The debug ip rip Command
Most of the RIP
configuration
errors involve an
incorrect network
statement,
discontiguous
subnets, or split
horizons. One
highly effective
command for
finding RIP update
issues is the
debug ip rip
command. The
debug ip rip
command
displays RIP
routing updates as
they are sent and
received. 117
Routing loops
can occur Problem: Routing Loops
when
inconsistent
routing tables
are not
updated due
to slow
convergence
in a changing
network.
118
Problem: Counting to Infinity
119
Solution: Define a Maximum
120
Solution: Split Horizon
121
Route Poisoning
Route poisoning is used by various distance vector protocols in order to
overcome large routing loops and offer explicit information when a subnet
or network is not accessible. This is usually accomplished by setting the
hop count to one more than the maximum.
122
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Protocol
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 123

OSPF is a Link-State Routing
Protocols
– Link-state (LS) routers recognize much more information
about the network than their distance-vector
counterparts,Consequently LS routers tend to make more accurate
decisions.
– Link-state routers keep track of the following:

• Their neighbours
• All routers within the same area
• Best paths toward a destination
124
Link-State Data Structures
– Neighbor table:
• Also known as the adjacency database
(list of recognized neighbors)
– Topology table:
• Typically referred to as LSDB
(routers and links in the area or network)
• All routers within an area have an identical LSDB
– Routing table:
• Commonly named a forwarding database
(list of best paths to destinations)
125
OSPF vs. RIP
RIP is limited to 15 hops, it converges slowly, and it sometimes chooses
slow routes because it ignores critical factors such as bandwidth in route
determination. OSPF overcomes these limitations and proves to be a
robust and scalable routing protocol suitable for the networks of today.
126
OSPF Areas
127
Area Terminology
128
LS Data Structures: Adjacency
Database
– Routers discover neighbors by exchanging

hello packets.
– Routers declare neighbors to be up after checking
certain parameters or options in the hello packet.
– Point-to-point WAN links:
• Both neighbors become fully adjacent.
– LAN links:
• Neighbors form an adjacency with the DR and BDR.
• Maintain two-way state with the other routers (DROTHERs).
– Routing updates and topology information are only passed
between adjacent routers.
129
OSPF Adjacencies
Routers build logical adjacencies between each other

using the Hello Protocol. Once an adjacency is formed:
• LS database packets are exchanged to synchronize
each other’s LS databases.
• LSAs are flooded reliably throughout the area or network
using these adjacencies.
130
Open Shortest Path First
Calculation
•Routers find the best paths to destinations by applying
Dijkstra’s SPF algorithm to the link-state database as
follows:
– Every router in an area has the identical
link-state database.
– Each router in the area places itself into
the root of the tree that is built.
– The best path is calculated with respect to the
lowest total cost of links to a specific destination.
– Best routes are put into the forwarding database.
131
show ip protocol
show ip route
132
show ip ospf neighbor detail
show ip ospf database
133
134
Overview
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a Cisco-
proprietary routing protocol based on Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(IGRP).
Unlike IGRP, which is a classful routing protocol, EIGRP supports CIDR

and VLSM.
Compared to IGRP, EIGRP boasts faster convergence times, improved

scalability, and superior handling of routing loops.
Furthermore, EIGRP can replace Novell Routing Information Protocol

(RIP) and AppleTalk Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP),
serving both IPX and AppleTalk networks with powerful efficiency.
EIGRP is often described as a hybrid routing protocol, offering the best

of distance vector and link-state algorithms.
135
EIGRP Concepts & Terminology
EIGRP routers keep route and topology information readily
available in RAM, so they can react quickly to changes.
Like OSPF, EIGRP saves this information in several tables and

databases.
EIGRP saves routes that are learned in specific ways.
Routes are given a particular status and can be tagged to

provide additional useful information.
EIGRP maintains three tables:

• Neighbor table
• Topology table
• Routing table 136
Neighbor Table
The neighbor table is the most important table in EIGRP.
Each EIGRP router maintains a neighbor table that lists adjacent

routers. This table is comparable to the adjacency database used by
OSPF. There is a neighbor table for each protocol that EIGRP
supports.
When a neighbor sends a hello packet, it advertises a hold time. The

hold time is the amount of time a router treats a neighbor as
reachable and operational. In other words, if a hello packet is not
heard within the hold time, then the hold time expires.
When the hold time expires, the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL),
which is the EIGRP distance vector algorithm, is informed
137 of the
topology change and must recalculate the new topology.
Topology Table
The topology table is made up of all the EIGRP routing tables in the
autonomous system.
DUAL takes the information supplied in the neighbor table and the topology
table and calculates the lowest cost routes to each destination. By
tracking this information, EIGRP routers can identify and switch to alternate
routes quickly.
The information that the router learns from the DUAL is used to determine
the successor route, which is the term used to identify the primary or best
route.
A copy is also placed in the topology table.
Every EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each configured network
protocol. All learned routes to a destination are maintained in the topology
table.
138
Routing Table
The EIGRP routing table holds the best routes to a destination. This
information is retrieved from the topology table. Each EIGRP router
maintains a routing table for each network protocol.
A successor is a route selected as the primary route to use to reach a

destination.DUAL identifies this route from the information contained in the
neighbor and topology tables and places it in the routing table.
There can be up to four successor routes for any particular route. These
can be of equal or unequal cost and are identified as the best loop-free
paths to a given destination.
A copy of the successor routes is also placed in the topology table.
A feasible successor (FS) is a backup route.These routes are identified at

the same time the successors are identified, but they are only kept in the
topology table. Multiple feasible successors for a destination can be
139
retained in the topology table although it is not mandatory.
EIGRP Data Structure
Like OSPF, EIGRP relies on different types of packets to maintain its various tables
and establish complex relationships with neighbor routers. The five EIGRP packet
types are:
• Hello
• Acknowledgment
• Update
• Query
• Reply
EIGRP relies on hello packets to discover, verify, and rediscover neighbor routers.
Rediscovery occurs if EIGRP routers do not receive hellos from each other for a
hold time interval but then re-establish communication.
EIGRP routers send hellos at a fixed but configurable interval, called the hello
interval. The default hello interval depends on the bandwidth of the interface.
On IP networks, EIGRP routers send hellos to the multicast IP address 224.0.0.10.

140
Configuring EIGRP
141
Configuring EIGRP Summarization
EIGRP automatically summarizes routes at the classful boundary.
This is the boundary where the network address ends, as defined by class-
based addressing.
This means that even though RTC is connected only to the subnet 2.1.1.0,
it will advertise that it is connected to the entire Class A network, 2.0.0.0.
In most cases auto summarization is beneficial because it keeps routing

tables as compact as possible.
142
Configuring EIGRP no-summary
However, automatic summarization may not be the preferred option in
certain instances. To turn off auto-summarization, use the following
command: router(config-router)#no auto-summary
143
show ip eigrp neighbors
show ip eigrp interfaces
144
show ip eigrp topology

[active | pending | successors]
145
all-links
show ip eigrp traffic
146
147
What are ACLs?
ACLs are lists of conditions that are applied to traffic traveling
across a router's interface. These lists tell the router what types
of packets to accept or deny. Acceptance and denial can be
based on specified conditions.
ACLs can be created for all routed network protocols, such as

Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
ACLs can be configured at the router to control access to a

network or subnet.
Some ACL decision points are source and destination addresses,

protocols, and upper-layer port numbers.
ACLs must be defined on a per-protocol, per direction, or per port

basis. 148
Reasons to Create ACLs
The following are some of the primary reasons to create ACLs:
• Limit network traffic and increase network performance.

• Provide traffic flow control.
• Provide a basic level of security for network access.
• Decide which types of traffic are forwarded or blocked at the
router interfaces. For example: Permit e-mail traffic to
be routed, but block all telnet traffic.
Allow an administrator to control what areas a client can access

on a network.
If ACLs are not configured on the router, all packets passing

through the router will be allowed onto all parts of149
the network.
Creating ACLs
ACLs are created in the global configuration mode. There are many
different types of ACLs including standard, extended, IPX,
AppleTalk, and others. When configuring ACLs on a router, each
ACL must be uniquely identified by assigning a number to it. This
number identifies the type of access list created and must fall within
the specific range of numbers that is valid for that type of list.
Since IP is by far the

most popular routed
protocol, addition ACL
numbers have been
added to newer router
IOSs.
Standard IP: 1300-1999
Extended
150
IP: 2000-2699
The access-list command
151
The ip access-group command
{ in | out }
152
ACL Example
153
Basic Rules for ACLs
These basic rules should be followed when creating and applying access lists:
• One access list per protocol per direction.

• Standard IP access lists should be applied closest to the destination.
• Extended IP access lists should be applied closest to the source.
• Use the inbound or outbound interface reference as if looking at the port
from inside the router.
• Statements are processed sequentially from the top of list to the bottom until
a match is found, if no match is found then the packet is denied.
• There is an implicit deny at the end of all access lists. This will not appear in
the configuration listing.
• Access list entries should filter in the order from specific to general. Specific
hosts should be denied first, and groups or general filters should come last.
• Never work with an access list that is actively applied.
• New lines are always added to the end of the access list.
• A no access-list x command will remove the whole list. It is not possible to
selectively add and remove lines with numbered ACLs.
• Outbound filters do not affect traffic originating from the local router.
154
Wildcard Mask Examples
5 Examples follow that demonstrate how a wildcard mask can be
used to permit or deny certain IP addresses, or IP address ranges.
While subnet masks start with binary 1s and end with binary 0s,
wildcard masks are the reverse meaning they typically start with
binary 0s and end with binary 1s.
In the examples that follow Cisco has chosen to represent the binary
1s in the wilcard masks with Xs to focus on the specific bits being
shown in each example.
You will see that while subnet masks were ANDed with ip
addresses, wildcard masks are ORed with IP addresses.
155
The any and host Keywords
156
Verifying ACLs
There are many show commands that will verify the content
and placement of ACLs on the router.
The show ip interface command displays IP interface

information and indicates whether any ACLs are set.
The show access-lists command displays the contents of all

ACLs on the router.
show access-list 1 shows just access-list 1.
The show running-config command will also reveal the

access lists on a router and the interface assignment
information.
157
Standard ACLs
Standard ACLs check the source address of IP packets that are routed.
The comparison will result in either permit or deny access for an entire protocol
suite, based on the network, subnet, and host addresses.
The standard version of the access-list global configuration command is used to

define a standard ACL with a number in the range of 1 to 99 (also from 1300 to
1999 in recent IOS).
If there is no wildcard mask. the default mask is used, which is 0.0.0.0.

(This only works with Standard ACLs and is the same thing as using host.)
The full syntax of the standard ACL command is:
Router(config)#access-list access-list-number
{deny | permit} source [source-wildcard ] [log]
The no form of this command is used to remove a standard ACL. This is the syntax:
Router(config)#no access-list access-list-number 158
Extended ACLs
Extended ACLs are used more often than standard ACLs because they provide a
greater range of control. Extended ACLs check the source and destination packet
addresses as well as being able to check for protocols and port numbers.
The syntax for the extended ACL statement can get very long and often will wrap in
the terminal window.
The wildcards also have the option of using the host or any keywords in the
command.
At the end of the extended ACL statement, additional precision is gained from a field
that specifies the optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) port number.
Logical operations may be specified such as, equal (eq), not equal (neq), greater
than (gt), and less than (lt), that the extended ACL will perform on specific protocols.
Extended ACLs use an access-list-number in the range 100 to 199 (also from 2000
to 2699 in recent IOS).
159
Well Known Port Numbers
Don’t forget that WWW or HTTP160is 80

Extended ACL Example
This extended ACL will allow people in network 200.100.50.0

to surfing the internet, but not allow any other protocols like
email, ftp, etc.
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80

or
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq www
or
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq http
161
ip access-group
The ip access-group command links an existing standard or

extended ACL to an interface.
Remember that only one ACL per interface, per direction, per
protocol is allowed.
The format of the command is:
Router(config-if)#ip access-group
access-list-number {in | out}
162
Permitting a Single Host
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.23 0.0.0.0
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit host 200.100.50.23
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit 200.100.50.23
(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone else is denied.)
Router(config)# int e0
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 in
or
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
163
Denying a Single Host
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 200.100.50.23 0.0.0.0
or
Router(config)# access-list 1 deny host 200.100.50.23
Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any
(The implicit “deny any” is still present, but totally irrelevant.)
or
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out
164
Permitting a Single Network
Class C
or
Class B
or
Class A
or
Router(config-if)# ip access-group 1 out 165
Denying a Single Network
Class C
or
Class B
or
Class A

166
Permitting a Class C Subnet
Network Address/Subnet Mask: 200.100.50.0/28
Desired Subnet: 3rd
Process:
32-28=4 2^4 = 16
1st Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.16-31
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.32-47
3rd Usable Subnet address range it 200.100.50.48-63
Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.240 Inverse Mask is 0.0.0.15

or subtract 200.100.50.48 from 200.100.50.63 to get 0.0.0.15
(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone 167

else is denied.)
Denying a Class C Subnet
Undesired Subnet: 2nd
Process:
32-27=5 2^5=32
1st Usable Subnet address range it 192.68.72.32-63
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 192.68.72.64-95


168
Permitting a Class B Subnet
Desired Subnet: 129th
Process:
Since exactly 8 bits are borrowed the 3rd octet will denote the
subnet number.
129th Usable Subnet address range it 150.75.129.0-255

(The implicit “deny any” ensures that everyone 169

else is denied.)
Denying a Class B Subnet
Undesired Subnet: 50th
Process:
32-22=10 (more than 1 octet) 10-8=2 2^2=4
1st Usable Subnet address range it 160.88.4.0-160.88.7.255
2nd Usable Subnet address range it 160.88.8.0-160.88.11.255
50 * 4 = 200 50th subnet is 160.88.200.0-160.88.203.255


Router(config)# access-list 1 permit any 170
Permitting a Class A Subnet
Desired Subnet: 13th
Process:
32-12=20 20-16=4 2^4=16
1st Usable Subnet address range is 111.16.0.0-111.31.255.255
13*16=208
13th Usable Subnet address range is 111.208.0.0-111.223.255.255

171
Denying a Class A Subnet
Undesired Subnet: 500th
Process:
Since exactly 16 bits were borrowed the 2nd and 3rd octet will
denote the subnet.
1st Usable Subnet address range is 40.0.1.0-40.0.1.255

Router(config)# access-list 1 deny 40.1.244.0 0 0.0.0.255

172
Permit Source Network
access-list 101 permit ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255

0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or
access-list 101 permit ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any
Implicit deny ip any any
173
Deny Source Network
access-list 101 deny ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or
access-list 101 deny ip 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any

access-list 101 permit ip any any
Implicit deny ip any any is present but irrelevant.

174
Permit Destination Network
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
or
access-list 101 permit ip any 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
175
Deny Destination Network
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
or
access-list 101 deny ip any 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255

Implicit deny ip any any is present but irrelevant.

176
Permit one Source Network to
another Destination Network
Assume the only traffic you want is traffic from network
200.100.50.0 to network 150.75.0.0

150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
To allow 2 way traffic between the networks add this statement:

200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 177
Deny one Source Network to
another Destination Network
Assume you want to allow all traffic EXCEPT from network
200.100.50.0 to network 150.75.0.0

150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
To deny 2 way traffic between the networks add this statement:

200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 178
Deny FTP
Assume you do not want anyone FTPing on the network.
access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq 21

or
access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq ftp

179
Deny Telnet
Assume you do not want anyone telnetting on the network.

or
access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq telnet

180
Deny Web Surfing
Assume you do not want anyone surfing the internet.

or
access-list 101 deny tcp any any eq www

You can also use http instead of181

www.
Complicated Example #1
Suppose you have the following conditions:
• No one from Network 200.100.50.0 is allowed to FTP anywhere
• Only hosts from network 150.75.0.0 may telnet to network 50.0.0.0
• Subnetwork 100.100.100.0/24 is not allowed to surf the internet
access-list 101 deny tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 21
access-list 101 permit tcp 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255 50.0.0.0

0.255.255.255 eq 23
access-list 101 deny tcp 100.100.100.0 0.0.0.255 any eq 80
182
Complicated Example #2
Suppose you are the admin of network 200.100.50.0. You want to permit
Email only between your network and network 150.75.0.0. You wish to place
no restriction on other protocols like web surfing, ftp, telnet, etc.
• Email server send/receive Protocol: SMTP, port 25
• User Check Email Protocol: POP3, port 110
This example assumes the your Email server is at addresses 200.100.50.25
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 150.75.0.0

0.0.255.255 eq 25
access-list 101 permit tcp 150.75.0.0 0.0.255.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 eq 25
access-list 101 permit tcp 200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255
200.100.50.0 0.0.0.255 eq 110
access-list 101 deny tcp any any smtp
access-list 101 deny tcp any any pop3
183
NAT
Network Address
Translator
184
Fig. 3 NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 7)
New addressing concepts
Problems with IPv4

Shortage of IPv4 addresses
Allocation of the last IPv4 addresses is forecasted for the year 2005
Address classes were replaced by usage of CIDR, but this is not sufficient
Short term solution

NAT: Network Address Translator
Long term solution

IPv6 = IPng (IP next generation)
Provides an extended address range
185
Fig. 2 Address shortage and possible solutions (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 5)
NAT: Network Address Translator
NAT
Translates between local addresses and public ones
Many private hosts share few global addresses
Private Network Public Network

Uses private address range Uses public addresses
(local addresses)
Local addresses may not Public addresses are
be used externally globally unique
186
Fig. 4 How does NAT work? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
realm with realm with
private addresses public addresses
translate reserve
To be pool
translated
map
NAT
exclude exclude
NAT Router
187
Fig. 5 Translation mechanism (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 9)
free
NAT
Pool
A timeout value (default 15 min) instructs NAT

how long to keep an association in an idle state before
returning the external IP address to the free NAT pool.
188
Fig. 8 How does NAT know when to return the public IP address to the pool? (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 15)
NAT Addressing Terms
• Inside Local
– The term “inside” refers to an address used for a host
inside an enterprise. It is the actual IP address assigned
to a host in the private enterprise network.
• Inside Global
– NAT uses an inside global address to represent the
inside host as the packet is sent through the outside
network, typically the Internet.
– A NAT router changes the source IP address of a packet
sent by an inside host from an inside local address to an
inside global address as the packet goes from the inside
to the outside network.
189
NAT Addressing Terms
• Outside Global
– The term “outside” refers to an address used for a
host outside an enterprise, the Internet.
– An outside global is the actual IP address assigned to
a host that resides in the outside network, typically the
Internet.
• Outside Local
– NAT uses an outside local address to represent the
outside host as the packet is sent through the private
enterprise network.
– A NAT router changes a packet’s destination IP
address, sent from an outside global address to an
inside host, as the packet goes from the outside to the
inside network.
190
WAN
Router
Router A with NAT

Router Router Router B
SA = 193.50.30.4
DA = 192.50.20.5
SA = 10.47.10.10 Router Router

DA = 192.50.20.5 Net B
192.50.20.0
LAN LAN
Net A
10.0.0.0
10.47.10.10 192.50.20.5
191
Fig. 7 An example for NAT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 13)
WAN
NAT with Router
WAN interface:
138.76.28.4
138.76.29.7
Router
SA = 138.76.28.4 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA =138.76.29.7 DA = 138.76.28.4
Router
SA = 10.0.0.10 SA = 138.76.29.7
DA = 138.76.29.7 DA = 10.0.0.10
Net A
10.0.0.0/8
10.0.0.10
192
Fig. 11 An example for NAPT (TI1332EU02TI_0003 New Address Concepts, 21)
Types Of NAT
• There are different types of NAT that can
be used, which are
– Static NAT
– Dynamic NAT
– Overloading NAT with PAT (NAPT)
193
Static NAT
• With static NAT, the NAT router simply
configures a one-to-one mapping between
the private address and the registered
address that is used on its behalf.
194
Static NAT
195
Dynamic NAT
• Like static NAT, the NAT router creates a
one-to-one mapping between an inside local
and inside global address and changes the
IP addresses in packets as they exit and
enter the inside network.
• However, the mapping of an inside local

address to an inside global address happens
dynamically.
196
Dynamic NAT
• Dynamic NAT sets up a pool of possible inside global

addresses and defines criteria for the set of inside
local IP addresses whose traffic should be translated
with NAT.
• The dynamic entry in the NAT table stays in there as

long as traffic flows occasionally.
• If a new packet arrives, and it needs a NAT entry, but

all the pooled IP addresses are in use, the router
simply discards the packet.
197
Static NAT
198
Static NAT Configuration
• To form NAT table

Router(config)#IP Nat inside source static [inside local
source IP address] [inside global source IP address]
• Assign NAT to an Interface
Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]

Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]
• See Example
199
Dynamic NAT
• Like static NAT, the NAT router creates a
one-to-one mapping between an inside local
and inside global address and changes the
IP addresses in packets as they exit and
enter the inside network.
• However, the mapping of an inside local

address to an inside global address happens
dynamically.
200
Dynamic NAT
• Dynamic NAT sets up a pool of possible inside

global addresses and defines criteria for the set of
inside local IP addresses whose traffic should be
translated with NAT.
• The dynamic entry in the NAT table stays in there as

long as traffic flows occasionally.
• If a new packet arrives, and it needs a NAT entry,

but all the pooled IP addresses are in use, the router
simply discards the packet.
201
Dynamic NAT Configuration
• Specify inside addresses to be translated

Router(config)#IP Nat inside source list [standard Access
List number] pool [NAT Pool Name]
• Specify NAT pool

Router(config)#IP Nat pool [NAT Pool Name] [First inside
global address] [Last inside global address] netmask
[subnet mask]
• Assign NAT to an Interface

Router(config)#Interface [Serial x/y]
Router(config-if)#IP NAT [Inside]
• See Example
202
203
Ethernet Access with Hubs
204
Ethernet Access with Bridges
205
Ethernet Access with Switches
206
Today's LAN
207
Full Duplex Transmitting
Full-duplex Ethernet allows the transmission of a packet and the reception of a
different packet at the same time.
This simultaneous transmission and reception requires the use of two pairs of wires
in the cable and a switched connection between each node. This connection is
considered point-to-point and is collision free.
The full-duplex Ethernet switch takes advantage of the two pairs of wires in the
cable by creating a direct connection between the transmit (TX) at one end of the
circuit and the receive (RX) at the other end.
Ethernet usually can only use 50%-60% of the available 10 Mbps of bandwidth
because of collisions and latency. Full-duplex Ethernet offers 100% of the
bandwidth in both directions. This produces a potential 20 Mbps throughput.
208
Why Segment LANs?
209
Collision Domains
210
Segmentation with Bridges
211
Segmentation with Routers
212
Segmentation with Switches
213
Basic Operations of a Switch
Switching is a technology that decreases congestion in Ethernet, Token
Ring, and FDDI LANs. Switching accomplishes this by reducing traffic and
increasing bandwidth. LAN switches are often used to replace shared hubs
and are designed to work with existing cable infrastructures.
Switching equipment performs the following two basic operations:
• Switching data frames
• Maintaining switching operations
214
Switching Methods
1. Store-and-Forward
The entire frame is received before any forwarding takes place. Filters are
applied before the frame is forwarded. Most reliable and also most latency
especially when frames are large.
2. Cut-Through
The frame is forwarded through the switch before the entire frame is
received. At a minimum the frame destination address must be read before
the frame can be forwarded. This mode decreases the latency of the
transmission, but also reduces error detection.
3. Fragment-Free
Fragment-free switching filters out collision fragments before forwarding
begins. Collision fragments are the majority of packet errors. In a properly
functioning network, collision fragments must be smaller than 64 bytes.
Anything > 64 bytes is a valid packet and is usually received without error.
215
Frame Transmission Modes
216
Benefits of Switching
217
How Switches and Bridges
Learn Addresses
Bridges and switches learn in the following ways:
• Reading the source MAC address of each received

frame or datagram
• Recording the port on which the MAC address was

received.
In this way, the bridge or switch learns which addresses

belong to the devices connected to each port.
218
CAM
Content Addressable Memory
CAM is used in switch applications:
• To take out and process the address information from

incoming data packets
• To compare the destination address with a table of

addresses stored within it
The CAM stores host MAC addresses and associated port

numbers. The CAM compares the received destination MAC
address against the CAM table contents. If the comparison
yields a match, the port is provided, and switching control
forwards the packet to the correct port and address.
219
Shared vs. Dedicates Bandwidth
If a hub is used, bandwidth is shared. If a switch is used, then bandwidth is
dedicated. If a workstation or server is directly connected to a switch port, then the
full bandwidth of the connection to the switch is available to the connected
computer. If a hub is connected to a switch port, bandwidth is shared between all
devices connected to the hub.
220
Microsegmentation of a Network
221
Microsegmentation
222
3 Methods of Communication
223
Switches & Broadcast Domains
When two switches are connected, the broadcast domain is increased.
The overall result is a reduction in available bandwidth. This happens because all
devices in the broadcast domain must receive and process the broadcast frame.
Routers are Layer 3 devices. Routers do not propagate broadcasts. Routers are
used to segment both collision and broadcast domains.
224
Broadcast Domain
225
226
Overview
To design reliable, manageable, and scalable networks, a network
designer must realize that each of the major components of a
network has distinct design requirements.
Good network design will improve performance and also reduce the
difficulties associated with network growth and evolution.
The design of larger LANs includes identifying the following:

• An access layer that connects end users into the LAN
• A distribution layer that provides policy-based connectivity
between end-user LANs
• A core layer that provides the fastest connection between the
distribution points
Each of these LAN design layers requires switches that are best
suited for specific tasks. 227
The Access Layer
The access layer is the entry point for user workstations and servers to
the network. In a campus LAN the device used at the access layer can
be a switch or a hub.
Access layer functions also include MAC layer filtering and

microsegmentation. Layer 2 switches are used in the access layer.
228
Access Layer Switches
Access layer switches operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model
The main purpose of an access layer switch is to allow end

users into the network.
An access layer switch should provide this functionality with

low cost and high port density.
The following Cisco switches are commonly used at the

access layer:
• Catalyst 1900 series
229
The Distribution Layer
The distribution layer of the network is between the access and core layers.
Networks are segmented into broadcast domains by this layer. Policies can be
applied and access control lists can filter packets.
The distribution layer isolates network problems to the workgroups in which they
occur. The distribution layer also prevents these problems from affecting the core
layer. Switches in this layer operate at Layer 2 and Layer 3.
230
Distribution Layer Switches
The distribution layer switch must have high performance.
The distribution layer switch is a point at which a broadcast domain is

delineated. It combines VLAN traffic and is a focal point for policy
decisions about traffic flow.
For these reasons distribution layer switches operate at both Layer 2

and Layer 3 of the OSI model.
Switches in this layer are referred to as multilayer switches. These

multilayer switches combine the functions of a router and a switch in
one device.
The following Cisco switches are suitable for the distribution layer:
• Catalyst 2926G
• Catalyst 5000 family
• Catalyst 6000 family 231
The Core Layer
The core layer is a high-speed switching backbone.
This layer of the network design should not perform any packet manipulation.
Packet manipulation, such as access list filtering, would slow down the process.
Providing a core infrastructure with redundant alternate paths gives stability to the
network in the event of a single device failure.
The core can be designed to use Layer 2 or Layer 3 switching. Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM) or Ethernet switches can be used.
232
Core Layer Switches
The switches in this layer can make use of a number of Layer 2
technologies. Provided that the distance between the core layer
switches is not too great, the switches can use Ethernet technology.
In a network design, the core layer can be a routed, or Layer 3, core.

Core layer switches are designed to provide efficient Layer 3
functionality when needed.
Factors such as need, cost, and performance should be considered

before a choice is made.
The following Cisco switches are suitable for the core layer:
• IGX 8400 series
• Lightstream 1010 233
234
Physical Startup of the Catalyst Switch
Switches are dedicated, specialized
computers, which contain a CPU, RAM, and
an operating system.
Switches usually have several ports for the

purpose of connecting hosts, as well as
specialized ports for the purpose of
management.
A switch can be managed by connecting to

the console port to view and make changes
to the configuration.
Switches typically have no power switch to

turn them on and off. They simply connect or
disconnect from a power source.
Several switches from the Cisco Catalyst

2950 series are shown in graphic to the right. 235
Switch LED Indicators
The front panel of a switch has several lights to help monitor system
activity and performance. These lights are called light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). The switch has the following LEDs:
• System LED
• Remote Power Supply (RPS) LED
• Port Mode LED
• Port Status LEDs
The System LED shows whether the system is receiving power and
functioning correctly.
The RPS LED indicates whether or not the remote power supply is in use.
The Mode LEDs indicate the current state of the Mode button.
The Port Status LEDs have different meanings, depending on the current
value of the Mode LED. 236
Verifying Port LEDs During Switch POST
Once the power cable is connected, the switch initiates a
series of tests called the power-on self test (POST).
POST runs automatically to verify that the switch functions

correctly.
The System LED indicates the success or failure of POST.
237
Connecting a Switch to a Computer
238
Examining Help in the Switch CLI
The command-line interface (CLI) for Cisco switches is very
similar to the CLI for Cisco routers.
The help command is issued by entering a question mark (?).
When this command is entered at the system prompt, a list of

commands available for the current command mode is
displayed.
The help command is very flexible and essentially functions

the same way it does in a router CLI.
This form of help is called command syntax help, because it

provides applicable keywords or arguments based on a partial
command. 239
Switch Command Modes
Switches have several command modes.
The default mode is User EXEC mode, which ends in a

greater-than character (>).
The commands available in User EXEC mode are limited to

those that change terminal settings, perform basic tests, and
display system information.
The enable command is used to change from User EXEC

mode to Privileged EXEC mode, which ends in a pound-sign
character (#).
The configure command allows other command modes to be

accessed. 240
Show Commands in User-Exec Mode
241
Setting Switch Hostname
Setting Passwords on Lines
242
243
Overview
Redundancy in a network is extremely important because
redundancy allows networks to be fault tolerant.
Redundant topologies based on switches and bridges are

susceptible to broadcast storms, multiple frame
transmissions, and MAC address database instability.
Therefore network redundancy requires careful planning

and monitoring to function properly.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol is used in switched networks

to create a loop free logical topology from a physical
topology that has loops.
244
Redundant Switched Topologies
Networks with redundant paths and devices allow for more network uptime.
In the graphic, if Switch A fails, traffic can still flow from Segment 2 to
Segment 1 and to the router through Switch B. If port 1 fails on Switch A then
traffic can still flow through port 1 on Switch B.
Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices on their ports so that data can
be properly forwarded to the destination. Switches will flood frames for
unknown destinations until they learn the MAC addresses of the devices.
A redundant switched topology may cause broadcast storms, multiple frame
copies, and MAC address table instability problems.
245
Broadcast Storms
Broadcasts and multicasts can cause problems in a switched network.
Multicasts are treated as broadcasts by the switches.
Broadcasts and multicasts frames are flooded out all ports, except the one on
which the frame was received.
The switches continue to propagate broadcast traffic over and over. This is
called a broadcast storm. This will continue until one of the switches is
disconnected. The network will appear to be down or extremely slow.
246
Multiple Frame Transmissions
In a redundant switched network it is possible for an end device to receive
multiple frames. Assume that the MAC address of Router Y has been timed
out by both switches. Also assume that Host X still has the MAC address of
Router Y in its ARP cache and sends a unicast frame to Router Y. The router
receives the frame because it is on the same segment as Host X. Switch A
does not have the MAC address of the Router Y and will therefore flood the
frame out its ports. Switch B also does not know which port Router Y is on.
Switch B then floods the frame it received causing Router Y to receive
multiple copies of the same frame. This is a cause of unnecessary processing
in all devices.
247
MAC Database Instability
A switch can incorrectly learn that a MAC address is on one port, when it is
actually on a different port. In this example the MAC address of Router Y is
not in the MAC address table of either switch. Host X sends a frame directed
to Router Y. Switches A & B learn the MAC address of Host X on port 0. The
frame to Router Y is flooded on port 1 of both switches. Switches A and B see
this information on port 1 and incorrectly learn the MAC address of Host X on
port 1. When Router Y sends a frame to Host X, Switch A and Switch B will
also receive the frame and will send it out port 1. This is unnecessary, but the
switches have incorrectly learned that Host X is on port 1.
248
Using Bridging Loops
for Redundancy
249
Logical Loop Free Topology
Created with STP
250
Spanning Tree Protocol - 1
Ethernet bridges
and switches can
implement the
IEEE 802.1D
Spanning-Tree
Protocol and use
the spanning-tree
algorithm to
construct a loop
free shortest path
network.
Shortest path is
based on
cumulative link
costs.
Link costs are
based on the
speed of the link.
251
Spanning Tree Protocol - 2
The Spanning-Tree Protocol
establishes a root node, called the
root bridge/switch.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol

constructs a topology that has one
path for reaching every network
node. The resulting tree originates
from the root bridge/switch.
The Spanning-Tree Protocol requires

network devices to exchange
messages to detect bridging loops.
Links that will cause a loop are put
into a blocking state.
The message that a switch sends,

allowing the formation of a loop free
logical topology, is called a Bridge
Protocol Data Unit (BPDU).
252
Selecting the Root Bridge
The first decision that all switches in the network make, is to identify
the root bridge. The position of the root bridge in a network will affect
the traffic flow.
When a switch is turned on, the spanning-tree algorithm is used to

identify the root bridge. BPDUs are sent out with the Bridge ID (BID).
The BID consists of a bridge priority that defaults to 32768 and the
switch base MAC address.
When a switch first starts up, it assumes it is the root switch and
sends BPDUs. These BPDUs contain the switch MAC address in both
the root and sender BID. As a switch receives a BPDU with a lower
root BID it replaces that in the BPDUs that are sent out. All bridges
see these and decide that the bridge with the smallest BID value will
be the root bridge.
A network administrator may want to influence the decision by setting

the switch priority to a smaller value than the default.253
BDPUs
BPDUs contain enough information so that all switches can do
the following:
• Select a single switch that will act as the root of the
spanning tree
• Calculate the shortest path from itself to the root switch
• Designate one of the switches as the closest one to the
root, for each LAN segment. This bridge is called the
“designated switch”. The designated switch handles all
communication from that LAN towards the root bridge.
• Each non-root switch choose one of its ports as its root
port, this is the interface that gives the best path to the
root switch.
• Select ports that are part of the spanning tree, the
designated ports. Non-designated ports are blocked.
254
Spanning Tree Operation
When the network has stabilized, it has converged and there is one spanning
tree per network. As a result, for every switched network the following
elements exist:
• One root bridge per network
• One root port per non root bridge
• One designated port per segment
• Unused, non-designated ports
Root ports and designated ports are used for forwarding (F) data traffic.
Non-designated ports discard data traffic.
Non-designated ports are called blocking (B) or discarding ports.
255
Spanning Tree Port States
256
Spanning Tree Recalculation
A switched internetwork has converged when all the switch and
bridge ports are in either the forwarding or blocked state.
Forwarding ports send and receive data traffic and BPDUs.
Blocked ports will only receive BPDUs.
When the network topology changes, switches and bridges

recompute the Spanning Tree and cause a disruption of user
traffic.
Convergence on a new spanning-tree topology using the IEEE

802.1D standard can take up to 50 seconds.
This convergence is made up of the max-age of 20 seconds, plus

the listening forward delay of 15 seconds, and the learning forward
delay of 15 seconds. 257
Rapid STP Designations
258
259
VLANs
VLAN implementation combines Layer 2 switching and Layer 3 routing
technologies to limit both collision domains and broadcast domains.
VLANs can also be used to provide security by creating the VLAN

groups according to function and by using routers to communicate
between VLANs.
A physical port association is used to implement VLAN assignment.
Communication between VLANs can occur only through the router.
This limits the size of the broadcast domains and uses the router to
determine whether one VLAN can talk to another VLAN.
NOTE: This is the only way a switch can break up a broadcast domain!
260
Setting up VLAN Implementation
261
VLAN Communication
262
VLAN Membership Modes
• VLAN membership can either be static or dynamic.

263
Static VLANs
• All users attached to same switch port must be in the same VLAN.
264
Configuring VLANs in Global
Mode
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vlan 3
Switch(config-vlan)#name Vlan3
Switch(config-vlan)#exit
Switch(config)#end
265
Configuring VLANs
in VLAN Database Mode
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan 3
VLAN 3 added:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....
266
Deleting VLANs in Global Mode
Switch(config)#no vlan 3
Switch(config)#end
267
Deleting VLANs
in VLAN Database Mode
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#no vlan 3
VLAN 3 deleted:
Name: VLAN0003
Switch(vlan)#exit
APPLY completed.
Exiting....
268
Assigning Access Ports to a
VLAN
Switch(config)#interface gigabitethernet 1/1
• Enters interface configuration mode
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
• Configures the interface as an access port
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3
• Assigns the access port to a VLAN
269
Verifying the VLAN
Configuration
Switch#show vlan [id | name] [vlan_num | vlan_name]
VLAN Name Status Ports

---- -------------------------------- --------- -------------------------------
1 default active Fa0/1, Fa0/2, Fa0/5, Fa0/7
Fa0/8, Fa0/9, Fa0/11, Fa0/12
Gi0/1, Gi0/2
2 VLAN0002 active
51 VLAN0051 active
52 VLAN0052 active
…
VLAN Type SAID MTU Parent RingNo BridgeNo Stp BrdgMode Trans1 Trans2
---- ----- ---------- ----- ------ ------ -------- ---- -------- ------ ------
1 enet 100001 1500 - - - - - 1002 1003
2 enet 100002 1500 - - - - - 0 0
51 enet 100051 1500 - - - - - 0 0
52 enet 100052 1500 - - - - - 0 0
…
Remote SPAN VLANs

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Primary Secondary Type Ports 270
------- --------- ----------------- ------------------------------------------
Verifying the VLAN Port
Configuration
Switch#show running-config interface {fastethernet |
gigabitethernet} slot/port
• Displays the running configuration of the interface
Switch#show interfaces [{fastethernet | gigabitethernet}

slot/port] switchport
• Displays the switch port configuration of the interface
Switch#show mac-address-table interface interface-id [vlan

vlan-id] [ | {begin | exclude | include} expression]
• Displays the MAC address table information for the specified

interface in the specified VLAN
271
Implementing VLAN Trunks
272
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN v2.0—2-272
VLAN Trunking
273
Importance of Native VLANs
274
ISL Encapsulation
– Performed with ASIC

– Not intrusive to client
stations; client does not
see the header
– Effective between
switches, and between
routers and switches
275
ISL and Layer 2 Encapsulation
276
Configuring ISL Trunking
Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 2/1
• Enters interface configuration mode
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
• Configures the interface as a Layer 2 trunk
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation [isl|dot1q]
• Selects the encapsulation
277
Verifying ISL Trunking
Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]

slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]
Switch#show interfaces fastethernet 2/1 trunk
Port Mode Encapsulation Status Native VLAN

Fa2/1 desirable isl trunking 1
Port VLANs allowed on trunk

Fa2/1 1-1005
Port VLANs allowed and active in management domain

Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005
Port VLANs in spanning tree forwarding state and not pruned

Fa2/1 1-2,1002-1005
278
802.1Q Trunking
279
Configuring 802.1Q Trunking
Switch(config)#interface fastethernet 5/8

Switch(config-if)#shutdown
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan 1,15,11,1002-1005
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
Switch(config-if)#switchport nonegotiate
Switch(config-if)#no shutdown
280
Verifying 802.1Q Trunking
Switch#show interfaces [fastethernet | gigabitethernet]

slot/port [ switchport | trunk ]
Switch#show interfaces gigabitEthernet 0/1 switchport

Name: Gi0/1
Switchport: Enabled
Administrative Mode: trunk
Operational Mode: trunk
Administrative Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Operational Trunking Encapsulation: dot1q
Negotiation of Trunking: On
Access Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking Native Mode VLAN: 1 (default)
Trunking VLANs Enabled: ALL
Pruning VLANs Enabled: 2-1001
. . .
281
Implementing VLAN Trunk Protocol
282
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. BCMSN 2.0—2-282
VTP Protocol Features
– Advertises VLAN configuration information
– Maintains VLAN configuration consistency throughout a
common administrative domain
– Sends advertisements on trunk ports only
283
VTP Modes
• Creates, modifies, and deletes
VLANs
• Sends and forwards
advertisements
• Synchronizes VLAN
configurations
• Saves configuration in NVRAM
• Cannot create,
change, or delete • Creates, modifies, and
VLANs deletes VLANs locally
• Forwards only
advertisements • Forwards
• Synchronizes advertisements
VLAN • Does not
configurations synchronize VLAN
• Does not save in configurations
NVRAM • Saves configuration in
NVRAM
284
VTP Operation
• VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.
• VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest update identified
revision number.
• VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.
285
VTP Pruning
• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic

• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward
any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN.
286
VTP Configuration Guidelines
– Configure the following:
• VTP domain name
• VTP mode (server mode is the default)
• VTP pruning
• VTP password
– Be cautious when adding a new switch into an existing

domain.
– Add a new switch in a Client mode to get the last up-to-date
information from the network then convert it to Server mode.
– Add all new configurations to switch in transparent mode
and check your configuration well then convert it to Server
mode to prevent the switch from propagating incorrect VLAN
information.
287
Configuring a VTP Server
Switch(config)#vtp server
• Configures VTP server mode
Switch(config)#vtp domain domain-name
• Specifies a domain name
Switch(config)#vtp password password
• Sets a VTP password
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
• Enables VTP pruning in the domain

288
Configuring a VTP Server
(Cont.)
Switch(config)#vtp server
Setting device to VTP SERVER mode.

Switch(config)#vtp domain Lab_Network
Setting VTP domain name to Lab_Network

Switch(config)#end
289
Verifying the VTP Configuration
Switch#show vtp status
Switch#show vtp status
VTP Version : 2
Configuration Revision : 247
Maximum VLANs supported locally : 1005
Number of existing VLANs : 33
VTP Operating Mode : Client
VTP Domain Name : Lab_Network
VTP Pruning Mode : Enabled
VTP V2 Mode : Disabled
VTP Traps Generation : Disabled
MD5 digest : 0x45 0x52 0xB6 0xFD 0x63 0xC8 0x49 0x80
Configuration last modified by 0.0.0.0 at 8-12-99 15:04:49
Switch#
290
Verifying the VTP Configuration
(Cont.)
Switch#show vtp counters
Switch#show vtp counters
VTP statistics:
Summary advertisements received : 7
Subset advertisements received : 5
Request advertisements received : 0
Summary advertisements transmitted : 997
Subset advertisements transmitted : 13
Request advertisements transmitted : 3
Number of config revision errors : 0
Number of config digest errors : 0
Number of V1 summary errors : 0
VTP pruning statistics:

Trunk Join Transmitted Join Received Summary advts received from
non-pruning-capable device
---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------------------
Fa5/8 43071 42766 5
291
292
Contents
• Remote access overview
• WAN Connection Types
• Defining WAN Encapsulation Protocols
• Determining the WAN Type to Use
• OSI Layer-2 Point-to-Point WANs
– PPP
– HDLC
– Frame Relay
293
Remote Access Overview
• A WAN is a data communications network
covering a relatively broad geographical
area.
• A network administrator designing a

remote network must weight issues
concerning users needs such as
bandwidth and cost of the variable
available technologies.
294
WAN Connection Types
295
• Leased lines
– It is a pre-established WAN communications path
from the CPE, through the DCE switch, to the CPE
of the remote site, allowing DTE networks to
communicate at any time with no setup procedures
before transmitting data.
• Circuit switching
– Sets up line like a phone call. No data can transfer
before the end-to-end connection is established.
296
• Packet switching
– WAN switching method that allows you to share
bandwidth with other companies to save money. As
long as you are not constantly transmitting data and
are instead using bursty data transfers, packet
switching can save you a lot of money.
– However, if you have constant data transfers, then

you will need to get a leased line.
– Frame Relay and X.25 are packet switching
technologies.
297
Defining WAN Encapsulation
Protocols
• Each WAN connection uses an
encapsulation protocol to encapsulate
traffic while it crossing the WAN link.
• The choice of the encapsulation protocol

depends on the underlying WAN
technology and the communicating
equipment.
298
Defining WAN Encapsulation
Protocols
• Typical WAN encapsulation types include the
following:
– Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

– Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
– High-Level Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC)
– X.25 / Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB)
– Frame Relay
– Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
299
Determining the WAN Type to
Use
• Availability
– Each type of service may be available in certain
geographical areas.
• Bandwidth
– Determining usage over the WAN is important to
evaluate the most cost-effective WAN service.
• Cost
– Making a compromise between the traffic you need to
transfer and the type of service with the available cost
that will suit you.
300
Determining the WAN Type to
Use
• Ease of Management
– Connection management includes both the initial
start-up configuration and the outgoing configuration
of the normal operation.
• Application Traffic
– Traffic may be as small as during a terminal session ,
or very large packets as during file transfer.
301
Max. WAN Speeds for WAN
Connections
WAN Type Maximum
Speed
Asynchronous Dial-Up 56-64 Kbps
X.25, ISDN – BRI 128 Kbps
ISDN – PRI E1 / T1
Leased Line / Frame Relay E3 / T3

302
OSI Layer-2 Point-to-Point
WANs
• WAN protocols used on Point-to-Point
serial links provide the basic function of
data delivery across that one link.
• The two most popular data link protocols

used today are Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) and High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC).
303
HDLC
• HDLC performs OSI Layer-2 functions.
• It determines when it is appropriate to use
the physical medium.
• Ensures that the correct recipient receives
and processes the data that is sent.
• Determines whether the sent data was
received correctly or not (error detection).
304
HDLC
• HDLC Frame Format
• The original HDLC didn’t include any

Protocol Type field, every company
(including Cisco) added its own field, so it
became a proprietary protocol that can be
used between only Cisco routers.
305
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• PPP is a standard encapsulation protocol for the
transport of different Network Layer protocols
(including, but not limited to, IP).
• It has the following main functional components

– Link Control Protocol (LCP) that establishes,
authenticates, and tests the data link connection.
– Network Control Protocols (NCPs) that establishes
and configure different network layer protocols.
306
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• PPP discards frames that do not pass the
error check.
• PPP is a standard protocol, and so it can
be used with all types of routers (not Cisco
Proprietary).
307
PPP LCP Features
• Authentication
• Compression
• Multilink PPP
• Error Detection
• Looped Link Detection
308
PAP Authentication
309
CHAP Authentication
310
Compression
• Compression enables higher data throughput
across the link.
• Different compression schemes are available:
– Predictor : checks if the data was already
compressed.
– Stacker : it looks at the data stream and only sends
each type of data once with information about where
the type occurs and then the receiving side uses this
information to reassemble the data stream.
– MPPC (Microsoft Point-to-Point Compression) :
allows Cisco routers to compress data with Microsoft
clients.
311
PPP Multilink
• PPP Multilink provides load balancing over
dialer interfaces-including ISDN,
synchronous, and asynchronous
interfaces.
• This can improve throughput and reduce

latency between systems by splitting
packets and sending fragments over
parallel circuits.
312
Error Detection
• PPP can take down a link based on the
value of what is called LQM (Link Quality
Monitor) as it gets the ratio of corrupted
packets to the total number of sent
packets, and according to a
predetermined value, the link can be
brought down if it is thought that its
performance is beyond limits accepted.
313
Looped Link Detection
• PPP can detect looped links (that are
sometimes done by Teleco companies)
using what is called Magic Number.
• Every router will have a magic number,

and if packets were received having the
same router’s magic number, then the link
is looped.
314
PPP Configuration Commands
• To enable PPP
– Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp
• To configure PAP authentication

– Router(Config-if)#ppp authentication pap
– Router(Config-if)#ppp pap username .. password ..
• To configure Compression
– Router(Config-if)#compress [predictor|stack|mppc]
315
Frame Relay
316
Frame Relay Components
317
Frame Relay
• The switch examines the frame sent by the
router that has a header containing an address
called DLCI (Data Link Control Identifier) and
then switches the frame based on the DLCI till it
reaches the router on the other side of the
network.
318
Frame Relay
• Frame Relay networks use permanent virtual circuits
(PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs) but most
nowadays Frame Relay networks use permanent virtual
circuits (PVCs).
• The logical path between each pair of routers is called a
Virtual Circuit (VC).
• VCs share the access link and the frame relay network.
• Each VC is committed to a CIR (Committed Information
Rate) which is a guarantee by the provider that a
particular VC gets at least this much of BW.
319
PVC
PC PVC
Port PVC
CPE
SVC
UNI
SVC
Controller
Router ISDN dial-up connection
or Switch
direct connection
(V.35, E1, RS232)
PBX
Video
Desktop & LAN Network access Frame Relay

Network
Formats
packets
in frames
320
LMI and Encapsulation Types
• The LMI is a definition of the messages used between
the DTE and the DCE.
• The encapsulation defines the headers used by a DTE

to communicate some information to the DTE on the
other end of a VC.
• The switch and its connected router care about using

the same LMI; the switch does not care about the
encapsulation. The endpoint routers (DTEs) do care
about the encapsulation.
321
LMI
• The most important LMI message is the LMI
status inquiry message. Status messages perform
two key functions:
– Perform a keepalive function between the DTE and

DCE. If the access link has a problem, the absence of
keepalive messages implies that the link is down.
– Signal whether a PVC is active or inactive. Even though

each PVC is predefined, its status can change.
322
LMI
• Three LMI protocol options are available in
Cisco IOS software: Cisco, ITU, and ANSI.
• Each LMI option is slightly different and
therefore is incompatible with the other two.
323
LAPF
• A Frame Relay-connected router encapsulates
each Layer 3 packet inside a Frame Relay header
and trailer before it is sent out an access link.
• The header and trailer are defined by the Link

Access Procedure Frame Bearer Services (LAPF)
specification.
• The LAPF framing provides error detection with

an FCS in the trailer, as well as the DLCI, DE,
FECN, and BECN fields in the header.
324
LAPF
• DTEs use and react to the fields specified by
these two types of encapsulation, but Frame
Relay switches ignore these fields. Because the
frames flow from DTE to DTE, both DTEs must
agree to the encapsulation used.
• However, each VC can use a different

encapsulation. In the configuration, the
encapsulation created by Cisco is called cisco,
and the other one is called ietf.
325
DLCI Addressing Details
• The logical path between a pair of DTEs is called a virtual
circuit (VC).
• The data-link connection identifier (DLCI) identifies each
individual PVC.
• When multiple VCs use the same access link, the Frame
Relay switches know how to forward the frames to the
correct remote sites.
The DLCI is the Frame Relay address describing a

Virtual Circuit
326
DLCI=17 B
DLCI=32
DLCI=32
DLCI=16
FR-network
R
DLCI=17
DLCI=16 DLCI=16
DLCI=21 R
Virtual circuit
R Router
B Bridge
Frame Relay switch
327
DLCI Addressing Details
• The difference between layer-2
addressing and DLCI addressing is mainly
because the fact that the header has a
single DLCI field, not both Source and
Destination DLCI fields.
328
Global DLCI Addressing
• Frame Relay DLCIs are locally significant; this
means that the addresses need to be unique
only on the local access link.
• Global addressing is simply a way of choosing
DLCI numbers when planning a Frame Relay
network so that working with DLCIs is much
easier.
• Because local addressing is a fact, global
addressing does not change these rules. Global
addressing just makes DLCI assignment more
obvious.
329
330
• The final key to global addressing is that the
Frame Relay switches actually change the DLCI
value before delivering the frame.
• The sender treats the DLCI field as a destination
address, using the destination’s global DLCI in the
header.
• The receiver thinks of the DLCI field as the
source address, because it contains the global
DLCI of the frame’s sender.
331
Layer 3 Addressing
• Cisco’s Frame Relay implementation
defines three different options for
assigning subnets and IP addresses on
Frame Relay interfaces:
– One subnet containing all Frame Relay DTEs
– One subnet per VC
– A hybrid of the first two options
332
One Subnet Containing All Frame
Relay DTEs
• The single-subnet option is typically used
when a full mesh of VCs exists.
• In a full mesh, each router has a VC to

every other router, meaning that each
router can send frames directly to every
other router
333
Relay DTEs
334
Relay DTEs
335
One Subnet Per VC
• The single-subnet-per-VC alternative, works better with a
partially meshed Frame Relay network.
336
One Subnet Per VC
337
Hybrid Terminology
• Point-to-point subinterfaces are used when a
single VC is considered to be all that is in the
group—for instance, between Routers A and D
and between Routers A and E.
• Multipoint subinterfaces are used when more than

two routers are considered to be in the same
group— for instance, with Routers A, B, and C.
338
Hybrid Terminology
339
Hybrid Terminology
340
Frame Relay Address Mapping
• Mapping creates a correlation between a Layer-
3 address (IP Address) and its corresponding
Layer-2 address (DLCI in Frame Relay).
• It is used so that after the router receives the

packet with the intended IP address could be
able to handle it to the right Frame Relay switch
(with the appropriate DLCI)
341
Mapping Methods
• Mapping can be done either two ways:
• Dynamic Mapping
– Using the Inverse ARP that is enabled by default
on Cisco routers.
• Static Mapping
– Using the frame-relay map command but you
should first disable the inverse arp using the
command no frame-relay inverse-arp
342
Inverse ARP Process
343
Frame Relay Configuration
344
Frame Relay Verification
345
Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)
346
ISDN Protocols
347
BRI & PRI B and D Channels
348
LAPD & PPP on D and B
Channels
349
Channels
• LAPD is used as a data-link protocol across an
ISDN D channel.
• Essentially, a router with an ISDN interface needs

to send and receive signaling messages to and
from the local ISDN switch to which it is
connected.
• LAPD provides the data-link protocol that allows

delivery of messages across that D channel to the
local switch.
350
Channels
• The call setup and teardown messages
themselves are defined by the Q.931
protocol. So, the local switch can receive a
Q.931 call setup request from a router
over the LAPD-controlled D channel, and
it should react to that Q.931 message by
setting up a circuit over the public network.
351
Channels
• An ISDN switch often requires some form of
authentication with the device connecting to it.
• Switches use a free-form decimal value, call the

service profile identifier (SPID), to perform
authentication.
• In short, before any Q.931 call setup messages are

accepted, the switch asks for the configured SPID
values. If the values match what is configured in the
switch, call setup flows are accepted.
352
PRI Encoding and Framing
• ISDN PRI in North America is based on a digital
T1 circuit. T1 circuits use two different encoding
schemes—Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) and
Binary 8 with Zero Substitution (B8ZS).
• The two options for framing on T1s are to use

either Extended Super Frame (ESF) or the older
option—Super Frame (SF). In most cases today,
new T1s use ESF.
353
DDR (Dial On Demand Routing)
• You can configure DDR in several ways,
including Legacy DDR and DDR dialer profiles.
• The main difference between the two is that

Legacy DDR associates dial details with a
physical interface, whereas DDR dialer profiles
disassociate the dial configuration from a
physical interface, allowing a great deal of
flexibility.
354
Legacy DDR Operation
• Route packets out the interface to be dialed.
• Determine the subset of the packets that
trigger the dialing process.
• Dial (signal).
• Determine when the connection is
terminated.
355
Legacy DDR Operation
356
DDR Step 1: Routing Packets Out the
Interface to Be Dialed
• DDR does not dial until some traffic is directed (routed) out
the dial interface.
• The router needs to route packets so that they are queued
to go out the dial interface. Cisco’s design for DDR defines
that the router receives some user-generated traffic and,
through normal routing processes, decides to route the
traffic out the interface to be dialed.
• The router (SanFrancisco) can receive a packet that must
be routed out BRI0; routing the packet out BRI0 triggers
the Cisco IOS software, causing the dial to occur.
357
DDR Step 2:
Determining the Interesting Traffic
• Packets that are worthy of causing the device to
dial are called interesting packets.
• Two different methods can be used to define

interesting packets.
– In the first method, interesting is defined as all
packets of one or more Layer 3 protocols.
– The second method allows you to define packets as
interesting if they are permitted by an access list.
358
DDR Step 3:
Dialing (Signaling)
• Defining the phone number to be dialed.
• The command is dialer string , where

string is the phone number (used when
dialing only one site).
• The dialer map command maps the

different dialer numbers to the equivalent
IP addresses of the routers to be dialed.
359
Configuring SPIDs
• You might need to configure the Service Profile
Identifier (SPID) for one or both B channels,
depending on the switch’s expectations.
• When the telco switch has configured SPIDs, it

might not allow the BRI line to work unless the
router announces the correct SPID values to the
switch. SPIDs, when used, provide a basic
authentication feature.
360
ISDN PRI Configuration
• Configure the type of ISDN switch to which this
router is connected.
• Configure the T1 or E1 encoding and framing
options (controller configuration mode).
• Configure the T1 or E1 channel range for the
DS0 channels used on this PRI (controller
configuration mode).
• Configure any interface settings (for example,
PPP encapsulation and IP address) on the
interface representing the D channel.
361
PRI Configuration Commands
362
ISDN Switch Types
363
Configuring a T1 or E1 Controller
• Your service provider will tell you what
encoding and framing to configure on the
router. Also, in almost every case, you will
use all 24 DS0 channels in the PRI—23 B
channels and the D channel.
364
DDR With Dialer Profiles
• Dialer profiles pool the physical interfaces
so that the router uses any available B
channel on any of the BRIs or PRIs in the
pool.
• Dialer profiles configuration moves most of

the DDR interface configuration to a virtual
interface called a dialer interface.
365
Dialer Profiles Configuration
366
Dialer Profiles Configuration
367
With all my best wishes for you
to succeed and distinguish in the
CCNA International Exam,
Keep In touch
© 2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 368

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Data Networks

Sharing data through the use of floppy disks is not an efficient

Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address

Businesses realized that networking technology could

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is

These devices are broken up into two classifications.

End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and

This is done passively,

Active hubs not only

Workgroup switches add

Switches can determine

One early solution was the creation of local-area network

What was needed was a way for information to move

The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks

A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is Direct

To address the problem of networks increasing in size

ISO - International Organization for Standardization

OSI - Open System Interconnection

IOS - Internetwork Operating System

The ISO created the OSI to make the IOS more

To avoid confusion, some people say “International

1 Physical PDU - Formatted Data

The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the

The transport layer provides transport services from

The primary duties of the transport layer, Layer 4 of the OSI

End-to-end control and reliability are provided by sliding

The transport layer provides transport services from the

It establishes a logical connection between the endpoints of

TCP is part of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In a connection-oriented

The protocols that use TCP include:

UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without

UDP uses no windowing or acknowledgments so reliability, if needed, is

The protocols that use UDP include:

When the packet arrives at a

The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the

The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an

Over the past two decades, numerous

Class Network Address Broadcast Address

Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information

All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.

Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider

Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the

With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B, or

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a known MAC addresses

RAM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Stores routing tables

NVRAM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Provides storage for the startup configuration file

• Holds the operating system image (IOS)

Is a type of electronically erasable, programmable

ROM has the following characteristics and functions:

• Maintains instructions for power-on self test

• Connect router to network for frame entry and exit

A solid understanding of the IOS is essential for a

It is the embedded software architecture in all of the Cisco

Without an operating system, the hardware does not have any

The Cisco IOS provides the following network services:

[0] Go to the IOS command prompt without saving this config.

Each configuration mode is indicated with a distinctive prompt and allows

Global configuration mode commands are used in a router to apply

Router#configure terminal (or config t)

This task is accomplished in global configuration