A.K.

SAHA Lect (Dsl)

The substances which contain free electrons are called conductors ,while the substances which do not contain any free electrons are called insulators. Semiconductors are intermediate to conductor & insulator. On the basis of energy band theory, Conductors have overlapping of valance band & conduction band. In insulator the forbidden energy gap is large. In semi-conductor the forbidden energy gap is small.

Germanium and silicon are well known semi conductors

Germanium and silicon have forbidden energy gap 0.7ev & 1.1 ev respectively.

They are much smaller in size and light in weight They are cheaper They are longer life No heater or filament is required. Hence no heating delays and no heating power needed They require low voltage for their operation. So lot of electrical power is saved They consume little power resulting in greater efficiency They are shock proof

They are heat sensitive. They get damaged due to overheating and high voltages. So they have to house in a controlled temp. room The noise level is very high They have poor response in high frequency.

Intrinsic Semiconductor : Pure semiconductor (without any impurity) are called intrinsic semiconductor. Ex- Ge & Si. They are tetravalent. Extrinsic semiconductor : If a small amount of trivalent or pentavalent impurity is inducted into pure Ge or Si , the conductivity of conductor increases appreciably . Such as impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.

P-Type Material:

+4

+4

+4

+4

+3

+4

+4

+4

+4

When a trivalent impurity like Al, B, Ga, In etc is doped in pure Ge or Si , then the conductivity of semi conductor increases due to deficiency of electrons i.e holes. Thus in this type of semi conductors the charge carrier are holes.

N-Type Material:

+4

+4

+4

+4

+5

+4

+4

+4

+4

When a pentavalent impurity like P, Antimony, arsenic etc is doped in pure Ge or Si , then the conductivity of semi conductor increases due to surplus of electrons. Thus in this type of semi conductors the charge carrier are electrons.

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

In forward bias the depletion region shrinks in width. In F-B, P- type F- Pmaterial is connected to positive terminal of battery & N- type material Nis connected to negative terminal of battery

Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. In R-B, P- type material is R- Pconnected to negative terminal of battery & NNtype material is connected to positive terminal of battery

Rectifier

Half-wave Rectifier

Full-wave Rectifier

Centre-tape full-wave rec.

Full-wave Bridge rec.

Centre-tape full-wave Rectifier: Circuit Diagram with waveforms:

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ADVANTAGE The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated The output is twice that of the centre-tap circuit for the same secondary voltage DISADVANTAGE It requires four diodes

Half-wave Centre-tap No. of diode Transformer necessary Maximum efficiency 1 No 40.6% 2 Yes 81.2%

Bridge type 4 No 81.2%

It is a voltage regulator to provide constant voltage from fluctuating D.C. voltage received from rectifier. It is highly doped p-n junction which is not damaged by high reverse current during the breakdown. It is designed to work only in the breakdown region.

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In the forward bias, the zener diode acts as ordinary diode. It is always connected in parallel with the load. When the input voltage increases, the current through the diode also increases. As a result of this, large voltage drop across the dropping resistance R. Hence the output voltage is maintained across RL. When input voltage decreases, small voltage drop takes place across R and constant output voltage across RL.

It is equivalent to three junction diodes connected in series as shown in fig. When this diode is forward biased D1& D3 diodes are F-B while D2 diode is R-B. Since D2 diode offers very high resistance & the three diodes are in series, the Shockley diode offers a very high resistance. So long as the forward voltage is less than breakover voltage,this diode practically conducts no current i.e. switch is open

At voltage above the breakover value,this diode gives a very low resistance i.e switch is closed & diode conducts heavily When this diode is R-B D1&D3 diodes are R-B while D2 diode is F-B.If reverse voltage is increased,reverse current flowing will rise rapidly & ruin the entire device. So this diode should never be operated beyond reverse break down voltage. Hence this diode is also known as PNPN diode or reverse blocking diode

It is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material between two layers of the other type semiconductor It was discovered by William Shockley in 1951

A PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of N-type material between two regions of P-type material.

An NPN transistors is formed by introducing a thin region of P-type material between two regions of N-type material

Emitter (E) : It is one of the outer parts, which is forward biased wrt the base. The main function of emitter is to supply majority charge (either holes or electrons) It is heavily doped in comparison to others. Base (B) :The middle part of transistor is known as base. It is very lightly doped and is very thin. Collector(C) :The other outer part , which is reverse biased wrt the base is called collector. The main function of collector is to collect majority charge carriers through the base. This is moderately doped.

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Collector

Base

Emitter

Longer life Low power consumption Higher efficiency Smaller in size Light in weight

COMMON BASE (CB) COMMON EMITTER (CE)

COMMON COLLECTOR (CC) But in every configurations: E B is FB & C B is RB for operation in active region.
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Comparison
Parameter Current gain Voltage gain Power gain Input resistance Output resistance CB CE 180 high high zero high less than 1 low to moderate CC

Phase shift between input and output zero high moderate low high

less than 1 high

moderate high moderate low

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS :THIS GRAPH IS SIMILAR TO F-B BIASED DIODE BUT BASE CURRENT IS MUCH SMALLER THAN NORMAL DIODE.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS : FOR LARGE BASE CURRENT, COLLECTOR CURRENT IS ALSO LARGE. COLLECTOR CURRENT IS ALMOST INDEPENDENT OF VCE

Switch: It works as a switch Amplification: It is a process of raising the strength of a weak signal. This device is called amplifier. It is used in for various control functions in diesel locomotive. Amplifiers are also used in P.A system. Oscillation: Conversion of d.c power into a.c power of any frequency. This device is called oscillator. It is used in the electronic excitation system & to supply power for various control functions in diesel locomotive. It operates from dc input voltage from the locomotive battery.

How Transistors Work

ollector Switching is controlled by the voltage between the Base and the Emitter.

Base

Emitter When VBE < 0.7V the transistor switches off and no current flows between the ollector and the Emitter.

When VBE 0.7V the transistor switches on and current flows between the ollector and the Emitter.

Mechanical Switch

Electro-Mechanical Switch or Relay

Electronic Switch

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Limitations Switching speed is small It can not handle heavy current Wear & tear more Sparking during breaking/off operation

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Advantage
The switch carries a small current compared to load current The operator can handle it from a large distance.This is advantageous when high voltages are to be handled There is no danger of sparking as relay coil switch carries a small current

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It is a device which can turn ON/OFF current with the help of transistors Advantage Fast switching i.e. billion operations/sec Requires less maintenance Cheaper Trouble free service Smaller size & weight

It is a four layer semiconductor used for handling large amounts of power. Transistors have a P-N-P or N-P-N structure with the named as collector, base & emitter. The thyristor has a P-N-P-N structure with the named as anode, cathode & gate. The control terminal of SCR is gate & connected to P type layer that adjoins the layer

SCR: Silicon Controlled Rectifier

GTO:Gate Turn-Off Thyristor

IGCT:Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor

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Electronic switch Relay controls Regulated power supply Motor control Rectifier & converter Battery charger Phase control HVDC transmission

S NO 1 2

TRANSISTOR It is a three layer, two junction device. To keep a transistor in the conducting state, a continuous base current is required. The forward voltage drop is of the order of 0.3 to 0.8 V The voltage & current ratings of transistors available at present are not high as those of thyristors. It is smaller in size & less costly More failure It is suitable for high frequency applications

THYRISTOR It is a four layer, three junction device. It requires an instant pulse to make it conducting. The forward voltage drop is of the order of 1.2 to 2 V Thyristors with very high voltage & current ratings are available. It is larger in size & costlier Reliable operation It is suitable for low frequency applications

3 4

5 6 7

Break-over voltage(VBO):It is the minimum forward voltage at which SCR starts conducting when gate terminal is open. Peak reverse voltage/Reverse break over voltage(VBR): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to SCR in the reverse direction(with conducting). Latching current(IL): It is the minimum anode current required to keep the device in the ON state when gate signal is removed. Holding current(IH): It is the minimum anode current required below which the device stops conducting & returns to its OFF state.

When anode A is +ve & cathode K is ve then J1& J3 are FB, J2 is RB. Thus device does not conduct. When anode A is -ve & cathode K is +ve then J1& J3 are RB, J2 is FB. Thus device does not conduct. When anode voltage is increased, a certain critical value called forward break-over voltage(VBO) is reached when J2 breaks & device conducts. Value of VBO is determined by magnitude of gate current. Higher the gate current, lower the VBO When V is increased in RB a stage comes when Zener breakdown occurs which may destroy the SCR. Hence SCR is a unidirectional device.

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High switching speed High efficiency due to low loss when used as switch Less maintenance & longer life due to absence of moving parts Noiseless operation Small size High reliability High voltage & current rating

THANKS