GSM Architecture

GSM Architecture Overview GSM Architecture Overview
Section 1 - GSM Architecture Overview

3troductio3 3troductio3
t provides an overview of the GSM network architecture. This
includes a brief explanation of the different network subsystems
and a description of the functionality of the elements within each
of the subsystems. Topics include:
General architecture overview
The Mobile Station (MS) Subsystem and Elements
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) and Elements
The Network Subsystem (NSS) and Elements
ntroduction to network interfaces
GSM network is made up of three subsystems:
The Mobile Station (MS)
The Base Station Sub-system (BSS) comprising a BSC and
several BTSs
The Network and Switching Sub-system (NSS) comprising an
MSC and associated registers
The interfaces defined between each of these sub systems include:
'' interface between NSS and BSS
'bis' interface between BSC and BTS (within the BSS)
'Um' air interface between the BSS and the MS
bbreviations
MSC Mobile Switching Center
BSS Base Station Sub-system
BSC Base Station Controller
HLR Home Location Register
BTS Base Transceiver Station
VLR Visitor Location Register
TRX Transceiver
uC uthentication Center
MS Mobile Station
ER Equipment dentity Register
OMC Operations and Maintenance Center
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
MobiIe Statio3 MobiIe Statio3
The Mobile Station (MS) consists of the physical equipment used by a
PLMN subscriber to connect to the network. t comprises the Mobile
Equipment (ME) and the Subscriber dentity Module (SM). The ME
forms part of the Mobile Termination (MT) which, depending on the
application and services, may also include various types of Terminal
Equipment (TE) and associated Terminal dapter (T).
The MS identifies the subscriber within the GSM network while
the MS SDN is the actual telephone number a caller (possibly in
another network) uses to reach that person.
Security is provided by the use of an authentication key and by
the transmission of a temporary subscriber identity (TMS)
across the radio interface where possible to avoid using the
permanent MS identity.
The ME may be used to block certain types of equipment from
accessing the network if they are unsuitable and also to check
for stolen equipment.
MS a3d SM MS a3d SM
The mobile station consists of :
mobile equipment (ME)
subscriber identity module (SM)
The SM stores permanent and temporary data about the mobile,
the subscriber and the network, including :
The nternational Mobile Subscribers dentity (MS)
MS SDN number of subscriber
uthentication key (Ki) and algorithms for authentication check
The mobile equipment has a unique nternational Mobile
Equipment dentity (ME), which is used by the ER
ase Statio3 Subsystem (SS) ase Statio3 Subsystem (SS)
The BSS comprises:
Base Station Controller (BSC)
One or more Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs)
The purpose of the BTS is to:
provide radio access to the mobile stations
manage the radio access aspects of the system
BTS contains:
Radio Transmitter/Receiver (TRX)
Signal processing and control equipment
ntennas and feeder cables
The BSC:
allocates a channel for the duration of a call
maintains the call:
monitors quality
controls the power transmitted by the BTS or MS
generates a handover to another cell when required
etwork Switchi3 System (SS) etwork Switchi3 System (SS)
The NSS combines the call routing switches (MSCs and GMSC)
with database registers required to keep track of subscribers'
movements and use of the system. Call routing between MSCs
is taken via existing PSTN or SDN networks. Signaling between
the registers uses Signaling System No. 7 protocol.
unctions of the MSC:
Switching calls, controlling calls and logging calls
nterface with PSTN, SDN, PSPDN
Mobility management over the radio network and other networks
Radio Resource management - handovers between BSCs
Billing nformation
3terfaces 3terfaces
BSC
VLR
MSC
Um
Abis
A
ISDN,
TUP
ercise ercise
". Name the interfaces used between
Mobile and BTS
BTS and BSC
BSC and MSC
Access etwork Access etwork
Section 2 - Access Network
Objective Objective
The Trainee will be able to understand:
Different BTS configuration commonly used in the network
dvantages of the configuration and optimal use of the trunks
bis mapping
ccess network is a connection between MS and NSS, comprise of
BTSs & BSCs. t is responsible for radio management.
BSC looks towards MSC through single -interface as being the
entity responsible for communicating with Mobile Stations in a
certain area. The radio equipment of a BSS may support one or
more cells.
BSS may consist of one or more base stations, where an -bis-
interface is implemented.
SS Co3fiuratio3 SS Co3fiuratio3
Collocated BTS
Remote BTS
Daisy Chain BTS
Star Configuration
Loop Configuration
Collocated BTS: BTS is situated along with BSC or the MSC and no
additional E link is required.
BSC
BTS
Remote BTS : BTS is situated in a stand alone position and additional E
links are required to connect to BSC.
BSC
BTS
aisy Chai3 aisy Chai3
MSC
BSC
BTS
BTS 2
BTS 3
BTS 4
Star Co3fiuratio3 Star Co3fiuratio3
MSC
BSC
BTS
BTS 2
BTS 3
BTS 4
BSC
BTS 3
oop Co3fiuratio3 oop Co3fiuratio3
MSC
BSC
BTS
BTS 2
BTS 3
BTS 4
Compariso3 of iffere3t Co3fiuratio3s Compariso3 of iffere3t Co3fiuratio3s
Daisy Chain: Easy to implement, effective utilization of
transmission links but if one of the link fails, all the BTSs
connected in the chain will went off.
Star Configuration: Easy to implement but poor utilization of
links. Each BTS require one E to connect to BSC. But if link
goes down only individual BTS will be affected.
Loop Configuration: Slightly difficult to implement but
effective utilization of E links. Even if one link goes off BTS will
continue to communicate with the network from the other side.
SS 3terfaces SS 3terfaces
ir nterface: Radio nterface between the BTS and
Mobile the supports frequency hopping and
diversity.
nterface: nterface carried by a 2-Mb link between
NSS and BSS. t this interface level,
transcoding takes place.
OMC nterface: X25 Link.
Abis 3terface (%S Abis 3terface (%S - - SC) SC)
f the BTS and BSC are not combined, -bis interface will be used.
Otherwise, BS interface will be used. Several frame unit
channels are multiplexed on the same PCM support and BSC
and BTS can be remote from each other. ts main functions are:
Conversion of 260 bit encoded blocks (corresponding to 60x8
bit samples for 20ms)
Encoded block synchronization
Vocal activity detection
larm dispatch to BSC via PCM
Test loop back operation
TRX 1
TRX 2
ercise ercise
". n How many ways BTSs can be connected and which
configuration gives the optimal solution?
"2. What is a difference between BS interface and bis interface?
"3. How many time slots are occupied by TRX on a PCM frame?
SS %opoIoy SS %opoIoy
Section 3 - NSS Topology
Objective Objective
Terminology used in Network Sub System
Protocols and nterfaces inside NSS
Call routing and circuit groups
Switching modules
Stand alone and integrated HLR
Echo canceller and TRU location
uthentication, Ciphering, OMC, Billing center
Transit Switch
Network Sub System can be considered as a heart of the GSM
Network. ll the major activities like switching of calls, routing,
security functions, call handling, charging, operation &
maintenance, handover decisions, takes place within the entities
of NSS.
Various kinds of interfaces are used to communicate between the
different entities. Different methods are used to optimize and
provide the quality network with the minimum operating cost.
etwork Switchi3 System (SS) etwork Switchi3 System (SS)
Key elements of the NSS:
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Home Location Register (HLR)
uthentication Center (uC)
Equipment dentity Register (ER)
Gateway MSC (GMSC)
These elements are interconnected by
means of an SS7 network
SS de3tifier SS de3tifier
M - 3ter3atio3aI MobiIe 6uipme3t de3tifier.
The ME is an internationally-unique serial number allocated to the
MS hardware at the time of manufacture. t is registered by the
network operator and (optionally) stored in the uC for validation
purposes.
ME = TC + C + SNR +sp
TC = Type pproval Code by central GSM body
C = inal ssembly Code, identifies the manufacturer
SNR = Serial Number, unique six digit number
sp = spare for future use
MS - 3ter3atio3aI MobiIe Subscriber de3tifier
When a subscriber registers with a network operator, a unique
subscriber MS identifier is issued and stored in the SM of the
MS as well as in the HLR . n MS can only function fully if it is
operated with a valid SM inserted into an MS with a valid ME.
MS consist of three parts:
MS = MCC + MNC + MSN
MCC = Mobile Country Code
MNC = Mobile Network Code
MSN = Mobile Station dentification Number
%MS -%emporary MobiIe Subscriber de3tity
TMS is used to protect the true identity (MS) of a subscriber. t
is issued by and stored within a VLR (not in the HLR) when an
MS attach takes place or a Location rea (L) update takes
place. t the MS it is stored in the MS's SM. The issued TMS
only has validity within a specific L.
Since TMS has local significance, the structure may be chosen by
the administration. t should not be more than four octets.
MSS - MobiIe Statio3 S umber
The MSSDN represents the 'true' or 'dialled' number associated
with the subscriber. t is assigned to the subscriber by the
network operator at registration and is stored in the SM.
ccording to the CCTT recommendations, it is composed in the
following way:
MSSDN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code
SN = Subscriber Number
MSR - MobiIe Statio3 Roami3 umber
The MSRN is a temporary, location-dependant SDN number
issued by the parent VLR to all MSs within its area of
responsibility. t is stored in the VLR and associated HLR but not
in the MS. The MSRN is used by the VLR associated MSC for
call routing within the MSC/VLR service area.
A - ocatio3 Area de3tity
Each Location rea within the PLMN has an associated
internationally unique identifier (L). The L is broadcast
regularly by BTSs on the Broadcast Control channel (BCCH),
thus uniquely identifying each cell with
an associated L.
L = MCC + MNC + LC
MCC = Mobile Country Code, same as in MS
MNC = Mobile Network Code, same as in MS
LC = Location rea Code, identifies a location area within a
GSM PLMN network. Maximum length of LC is 6 bits.
MobiIe Switchi3 Ce3ter (MSC) MobiIe Switchi3 Ce3ter (MSC)
The Mobile services Switching Center (MSC) performs the
telephony switching functions of the system. t also controls calls
to and from other telephony and data systems, such as the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and Public Land
Mobile Network (PLMN).
Difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is -
MSC has to take into account the impact of the allocation of
radio resources and the mobile nature of the subscribers and
has to perform in addition, at least the following procedures:
required for location registration
procedures required for handover
n MSC can be connected to only one VLR. Therefore, all mobile
stations that move around under base stations connected to the
MSC are always managed by the same VLR.
n MSC would communicate typically with one ER. While it is
possible for an MSC to communicate to multiple ERs, this is
highly unlikely since the ER provides a centralized and
geographic independent function.
The MSC consults an HLR to determine how a call should be
routed to a given mobile station:
or incoming calls to a mobile station, the MSC would typically
consult one HLR.
or mobile-to-mobile calls in larger networks, a MSC could
consult HLRs of other systems to help minimize the trunk paths
to the other mobile station.
given MSC can be interconnected to other MSCs to support inter-
MSC handovers
The following are typical MSC functions in a cellular system:
Provide switched connections with PSTN
Provide switched connections between mobile subscribers
Provide coordination over signaling with mobiles
Coordinate the location and handover process
Provide custom services to mobile users
Collect billing data
!rotocoIs !rotocoIs
MSC/BSC MSC/HLR
MSC/VLR
MSC/ER
MSC/GMSC
VLR/VLR
VLR/HLR
MSC/MSC
OMC/MSC
OMC/HLR
OMC/VLR
OMC/BSS
MSC/ixed Network
MSC/Voice
messaging
BSSMP TCP+MP X.225 R2, SUP other
Signaling
SCCP SCCP X.224
MTP MTP X.25 MTP
SS7 SS7
Switchi3 3 MSC Switchi3 3 MSC
Signaling network is separated from the speech network and
consists of
signaling Links (SL)
signaling Point (SP)
signaling Transfer Part (STP).
Telephony system contains:
Group Switch to switch the calls,
ST to perform signaling in accordance with SS7
Trunk interfaces for interfacing the PCM.
Group switch provides a semi permanent connection between time
slot (PCM) and ST.
Si3aIi3 !oi3t (S!) Si3aIi3 !oi3t (S!)
SP provides the functions of signaling and transmit and receive
messages to and from different nodes. Each SP in the network will
have an identification code termed as signaling Point Code (SPC).
Si3aIi3 %ra3sfer !oi3t (S%!) Si3aIi3 %ra3sfer !oi3t (S%!)
Signaling Transfer Part is signaling point that only transfers messages
from one signaling point (SP) to another.

SP
(SPC)
SP
(SPC)
STP
STP
Si3aIi3 i3k (S) Si3aIi3 i3k (S)
Signaling Link is the 64kbps link interconnecting two signaling Points
and provides the functions of message error control and message
sequencing. Each signaling Link has an SLC (signaling Link Code),
which identifies the signaling Link with in the signaling Link Set.
Service Switchi3 !oi3t (SS!) Service Switchi3 !oi3t (SS!)
The MSC contains:
The Service Switching Point
One or more radio control point
SSP handles the usual switching function and can be connected
via 2Mbps PCM link with:
Other exchanges of fixed PSTN or mobile PLMN,
Points on the SS7 signaling network,
X.25 network
Continued...
The O&M network,
The ntelligent network,
PSTN via user data channels and signaling channels using SUP
and R2 protocols,
Other elements of the GSM
Switching unction of SSP:
Main control,
Switching matrix,
PCM multiplex connection,
Service circuits
Operation and maintenance
Establishing and releasing section of the links from and to
mobiles,
inding circuits to the BSS; special circuit groups are created.
SSP selects an incoming and outgoing circuit.
CaII Routi3 CaII Routi3
f a number received is a national or international number, the address
information is passed to the SSP.
f the number received is an HPLMN (Home PLMN), the RCP asks
the HLR for a roaming number (MSRN). This MSRN is passed to the
SSP for routing.
f the number received is an emergency service number, the
originating geographic area is attached to it and the combined
information passed to the SSP.
Continued...
n the SSP the number received from RCP follow the standard
translation process:
Preliminary analysis: Selection of a translator (national,
international),
Translation: Determination of a routing depend on the first digits
dialled,
Routing: Determination of an outing circuit group.
Circuit Groups Circuit Groups
Call routes from the MSC through circuit groups. Different circuit
groups are created inside it:
Group for the PSTN (according to the exchange)
Group for the BSCs
Group for the Supplementary services
Group for the W
MSC
CG1
CG2
CGn
CGa
CGx
CG
CG
BSC1
BSC2
BSCn
PSTN1
PSTNx
Supplementary
Services
IWF
3terfaces 3terfaces
A A- -3terface (MSC 3terface (MSC - - SC) SC)
The interface between the MSC and its BSS is specified in the 08-series
of GSM Technical Specifications. The BSS-MSC interface is used to
carry information concerning:
BSS management;
call handling;
mobility management.
- -3terface (MSC 3terface (MSC - - VR) VR)
The VLR is the location and management data base for the mobile
subscribers roaming in the area controlled by the associated
MSC(s). Whenever the MSC needs data related to a given mobile
station currently located in its area, it interrogates the VLR. When
a mobile station initiates a location updating procedure with an
MSC, the MSC informs its VLR which stores the relevant
information. This procedure occurs whenever an MS roams to
another location area. lso, when a subscriber activates a
specific supplementary service or modifies some data attached to
a service, the MSC informs (via the VLR) the HLR which stores
these modifications and updates the VLR if required.
C C- -3terface (HR 3terface (HR - - MSC) MSC)
The Gateway MSC must interrogate the HLR of the required subscriber
to obtain routing information for a call or a short message directed to
that subscriber.
- -3terface (HR 3terface (HR - - VR) VR)
This interface is used to exchange the data related to the location of the
mobile station and to the management of the subscriber. The main
service provided to the mobile subscriber is the capability to set up or
to receive calls within the whole service area. To support this, the
location registers have to exchange data. The VLR informs the HLR of
the location of a mobile station managed by the latter and provides it
(either at location updating or at call set-up) with the roaming number
of that station.
The HLR sends to the VLR all the data needed to support the service to
the mobile subscriber. The HLR then instructs the previous VLR to
cancel the location registration of this subscriber. Exchanges of data
may occur when the mobile subscriber requires a particular service,
when he wants to change some data attached to his subscription or
when some parameters of the subscription are modified by
administrative means
- -3terface (MSC 3terface (MSC - - MSC) MSC)
When a mobile station moves from one MSC area to another
during a call, a handover procedure has to be performed in order
to continue the communication. or that purpose the MSCs have
to exchange data to initiate and then to realize the operation.
fter the handover operation has been completed, the MSCs will
exchange information to transfer -interface signaling as
necessary. When a short message is to be transferred between
a Mobile Station and Short Message Service Centre (SC), in
either direction, this interface is used to transfer the message
between the MSC serving the Mobile Station and the MSC which
acts as the interface to the SC.
- -3terface (MSC 3terface (MSC - - R) R)
This interface is used between MSC and ER to exchange data, in order
that the ER can verify the status of the ME retrieved from the Mobile
Station.
GG- -3terface (VR 3terface (VR - - VR) VR)
When a mobile subscriber moves from a VLR area to another Location
Registration procedure will happen. This procedure may include the
retrieval of the MS and authentication parameters from the old VLR.
H H- -3terface (HR 3terface (HR - - AUC) AUC)
When an HLR receives a request for authentication and ciphering data
for a Mobile Subscriber and it does not hold the requested data, the
HLR requests the data from the uC. The protocol used to transfer the
data over this interface is not standardized.
Switch ModuIes Switch ModuIes
Switch has three major types of equipment modules:
Switching module (SM)
Communication module (CM)
dministrative module (M)
Switching Module (SM):
ll external lines, trunks, and special services circuits are
terminated at the switching module. The analog and digital
signals are converted to the digital format used inside the switch.
The SM performs almost 95% of the call processing and
maintenance functions including:
Line and trunk scanning
Tone generation
nnouncements
Call progress supervision
Routine maintenance and self-maintenance.
The SM also provides subscriber calling features including:
call waiting
abbreviated dialing
call diversion
conference calls.
SM further has two components:
. Control units - Control all activities within the SM, such as call
processing and maintenance functions.
2. Peripheral units - Perform testing functions and provide
customers and other exchanges access to the switch.
Communication Module (CM):
The CM serves as the hub (focal point) for all inter module
communication in a switch. The CM has four main functions:
. Call switching - The CM interconnects the paths between
modules to complete telephone calls and to relay data.
2. Message switching - The CM provides paths to send
information between processors to process calls, maintain
records, and perform system tasks.
Continued...
3. Network timing - The CM provides accurate timing and
synchronization for the switch.
4. ast pump - The CM provides resources to quickly download (pump)
an SM's software if needed.
dministrative Module (M):
The M controls the CM and communicates with all the SMs
(through the CM). The M monitors itself and the CM for
malfunctions. f there are any problems, they are reported to
maintenance personnel.
The M performs resource allocation and processing functions that
are done more efficiently on a centralized basis such as:
Call routing for inter module and intra module calls
dministrative data processing/billing data
Continued...
Traffic measurement reports/system performance reports
Memory management
System maintenance
Maintaining file records of changes to the system Software Release.
Personnel interface/system monitoring
llocating trunks for call processing.
Switch
SM AM CM
Control
Unit
Peripheral
Unit
MSGS TMS
Control
Unit
I/O
Processor
Disk
Unit
Tape
Unit
MCC
Home ocatio3 Reister Home ocatio3 Reister
HLR is a database that stores subscription and set of functions
needed to manage subscriber data in one PLMN area. ny
administrative action by the service provider or changes made by
subscriber is first carried out on the HLR and then update the
VLR. ollowing are the subscriber data which frequently
changes:
- dentification number MSSDN & MS
- Service restriction
- Teleservices
- Bearer services
- Supplementary services
Beside the permanent data it also include dynamic data of home
subscriber including VLR address, call forward number and call
barring numbers.
Triplets are also stored in the HLR for the authentication purpose.
The HLR communicates with other nodes: VLR, UC, GMSC & SMS SC
via MP (Mobile ccess Protocol). To support this communication
HLR needs MTP and SCCP
MA! (MobiIe AppIicatio3 !rotocoI) MA! (MobiIe AppIicatio3 !rotocoI)
The only way via which HLR communicates with other GSM nodes is
Mobile ccess Protocol. Number of functional blocks exist to
support different MP operations eg HLCP is used for location
cancellation or HLUP is required for location updating. Other
functions defined on the MP are:
- nter MSC Handover and subsequent handover
- Update HLR and VLR
- ault Recovery
- Management and handling of supplementary services.
Continued...
- Support of Short Message Services.
- Call establishment / delivery
- Security related data.
- Retrieval of subscriber data during call setup.
HLR also needs to communicate with GMSC, VLR, UC and SMS-SC, for
which MTP and SCCP is essential.
SCC! (Si3aIi3 Co33ectio3 Co3troI !oi3t) SCC! (Si3aIi3 Co33ectio3 Co3troI !oi3t)
ll MP messaging use SCCP to analyze the GT (Global Title) of
incoming information. f GT belongs to anther node, then SCCP
will use the services of MTP (Message Transfer Part) to reroute
the message.
SCCP must have the GT analysis to terminate and route MP
messages from all nodes it communicates with.
To find out the DPC, SCCP looks in a routing case translation
table. The information about the DPC is then sent to MTP which
sends the message to the appropriate SP.
M%! (Messae %ra3sfer !art) M%! (Messae %ra3sfer !art)
MTP must be defined to allow the nodes to communicate with each
other.
The MTP provides the means for reliable transport and delivery of
UP (User Part) information across the No. 7 network eg SDN
User part (SUP), the Telephone User Part (TUP), Signaling
Connection Control Part (SCCP), nterworking function User Part
(WUP) and Data User Part (DUP)
Continued...
MTP has the ability to react to system and network failure that
affect the user information.
MTP further has three functional levels:
. MTP Level Signaling data link
2. MTP Level 2 Signaling link
3. MTP Level 3 Signaling network
HLR connects with MSC via C interface, VLR via D interface
HLR can be configured in two ways:
. ntegrated with MSC
. Hs
2. Stand lone HLR (External Database)
3terated Vs Sta3d AIo3e HR 3terated Vs Sta3d AIo3e HR
The ntegrated HLR is accessed by other MSC's/ VLR's via MP, and
the switch can use MP to query other off switch HLRs. The main
advantages with an integrated HLR solution at this early stage are:
Efficient use of HW and lower HW investments
ewer physical connections required due to fewer physical nodes
Less capacity required in No. 7 network as major part of HLR
signaling is internal within MSC/VLR/HLR
single fault will affect a smaller number of subscribers than if
standalone HLR is used
Major drawbacks are:
Less processing capacity available for MSC/VLR.
dditional Switching capacity will be required earlier
Migration to standalone HLR (which is to be preferred in a mature
larger network) will induce major changes in the network
dministration of subscriptions
Operation and maintenance for HLR geographically distributed
n Stand lone HLR, call processing activities are not performed by the
switch. Only HLR queries are handled via the GSM standard MP
messages coming over signaling links from other Mobile Switching
Centers (MSCs) in the wireless network.
Benefits:
ll HLR data is centralized, thus simplifying its ongoing
maintenance and operation
High HLR Capacity
High processing capacity
On going enhancement
There are some drawbacks with standalone HLR
O fault in a HLR will affect many subscribers
O fault in a HLR will increase the signaling substantially in
the whole signaling network
HR is respo3sibIe for HR is respo3sibIe for
Connection of mobile subscribers and definition of
corresponding subscriber data.
Subscription to basic services.
Registration/deletion of supplementary services.
ctivation/deactivation of supplementary services.
nterrogation of supplementary services status.
Continued...
unctions for analysis of mobile subscriber numbers
(MSSDN, MS, additional MSSDN) and other types of
addresses.
Statistical functions for collecting data regarding the
performance of the system.
unctions for communication with GMSC and VLR using
the No. 7 signaling system and MP
Handling of authentication and ciphering data for mobile
subscribers including communication with an authentication
center.
Continue...
Get Password/Register Password
lert Service Center
Provide Roaming Number
Send Routing nformation for SMS
Send Routing nformation for GMSC
Set Message Waiting Data
Visitor ocatio3 Reister Visitor ocatio3 Reister
t is a subscriber database containing the information about all the MS
currently located in the MSC service area. VLR can be considered as
a distributed HLR in the case of a roaming subscriber. f MS moves
into a new service area (MSC), VLR requests the HLR to provide the
relevant data and store it, for making the calls for that MS.
VLR is always integrated with MSC to avoid the signaling load on the
system.
t can also be viewed as a subset of a HLR.
VLR connects with MSC via B interface, HLR via D interface and with
another VLR via G interface.
G
VLR is responsible Ior
Setting up and controlling calls along with supplementary
services.
Continuity oI speech (Handover)
Location updating and registration
Updating the mobile subscriber data.
Maintain the security oI the subscriber by allocating TMSI
Continued...
Receiving and delivering short messages
Handling signaling to and Irom
- BSC and MSs using BSSMAP
- other networks eg PSTN, ISDN using TUP
IMEI check
Retrieve data Irom HLR like authentication data, IMSI,
ciphering key
Continued...
Retrieve information for incoming calls.
Retrieve inIormation Ior outgoing calls.
Attach/Detach IMSI
Search Ior mobile subscriber, paging and complete the call.
Security eature Security eature
Both the users and the network operator must be protected against
undesirable intrusion of third party. s a consequence, a
security feature is implemented in the telecommunication
services. The following parts of the system have been
reinforced and provide the various security features:
. ccess to the network authentication
2. Radio part ciphering
3. Mobile equipment equipment identification
4. MS temporary identity
Authe3ticatio3 Ce3ter (AUC) Authe3ticatio3 Ce3ter (AUC)
UC is always integrated with HLR for the purpose of the
authentication. t subscription time, the Subscriber
uthentication Key (Ki) is allocated to the subscriber, together
with the MS. The Ki is stored in the UC and used to provide
the triplets, same Ki is also stored in the SM.
UC stores the following information for each subscriber
. The MS number,
2. The individual authentication key Ki,
3. version of 3 and 8 algorithm.
Continued...
uthentication is required at each registration, at each call setup
attempt (mobile originated or terminated), at the time of location
updating, before supplementary service activation, de-activation ,
registration.
HLR uses the MS to communicate with UC, triplets are
requested in sets of five.
Continued...
n UC following steps are used to produce one triplet:
. non- predictable random number, RND, is produced
2. RND & Ki are used to calculate the Signed Response
(SRES) and the Ciphering Key (Kc)
3. RND, SRES and Kc are delivered together to HLR as one
triplet.
HLR delivers these triplets to MSC/VLR on request in such a way
that VLR always has at least one triplet.
uthentication Procedure:
The MSC/VLR transmits the RND (28 bits) to the mobile. The MS
computes the SRES (32 bits) using RND, subscriber authentication
key Ki (28 bits) and algorithm 3. MS sends back this SERS to UC
and is tested for validity.
MS BTS MSC/VLR HLR AUC OMC
A4
A4
IMSI
Ki
A3 A8
Triplets
Generation
Ki
RAND
RAND
SERS
Kc
A2
Triplets
Ciphering
Function
A5
Kc
RAND
?
SERS
IMSI
Ki
A3
A8
Ciphering
Function
A5
Kc
SIM Card
Cipheri3 Cipheri3
The user data and signaling data passes over the radio interface are ciphered to
prevent intrusion. The ciphered key (Kc) previously computed by the UC is
sent from the VLR to the BSS after the mobile has been authenticated. The
Kc is also computed in the MS and in the way both ends of the radio link (MS
and BSS) possess the same key.
Procedure:
or the authentication procedure, when SRES is being calculated, the
Ciphering Key (Kc), is calculating too, using the algorithm 8.
The Kc is used by the MS and the BTS in order to cipher and decipher the
bit stream that is sent on the radio path.
AUC
Ki
A3
A8
A8
Ciphering/Deciphering
Speech, data,sig
A5
Kc
A3
Choice oI random no
RAND (128 bits)
?
OK
SIM
Ki
A3
A8
A5
Speech, data,sig
A8
Kc (64
bits)
A3
SERS
RAND
SERS
Ciphering Command
Ciphered Data
Subscriber Co3fide3tiaIity Subscriber Co3fide3tiaIity
The subscriber identity (MS), since is considered sensitive
information, is not normally transmitted on the radio channel.
local, temporary identity is used for all interchanges. The identity
(TMS) is assigned after each change of authenticated location.
or other cases:
Call set-up
Use of supplementary services
Use of SMS
Continued...
TMS is allocated when the one supplied by the MS is considered out of
date or when the MS does not provide the TMS.
Transmission of the TMS over the traffic channel is ciphered.
6uipme3t de3tificatio3 Reister (R) 6uipme3t de3tificatio3 Reister (R)
Purpose of this feature is to make sure that no stolen or unauthorized
mobile equipment is used in the network.
ER is a database that stores a unique nternational Mobile Equipment
dentity (ME) number for each item of mobile equipment.
Procedure:
The MSC/VLR requests the ME from the MS and sends it to a
ER.
On request of ME, the ER makes use of three possible defined
lists:
- white list: containing all number of all equipment identities
that have been allocated in the different participating countries.
- black list: containing all equipment identities that are
considered to be barred.
- grey list: containing (operator's decision) faulty or non-
approved mobile equipment.
Result is sent to MSC/VLR and influences the decision about
access to the system.
EIR MSC/VLR
MS
Storage oI all number
series mobile equipment
that have been allocated
in the diIIerent GSM -
countries
Storage oI all grey/black
listed mobile equipment
Storage oI the
equipment identity
IMEI
Call Setup
IMEI Request
Sends IMEI
Check IMEI
Access/ barring inIo
Continues/Stops
call setup
procedure
cho Ca3ceIIer cho Ca3ceIIer
n order to eliminate echo effects (noticeable by the mobile
subscribers while in conversation with PSTN subscribers)
caused by the time delay due to coding and decoding of signal
processing, group of echo cancellers are installed even for local
calls.
This is rarely a problem when communicating between two MSs.
However, when connecting to a PSTN telephone, the signal
must pass through a 4-wire to 2-wire hybrid transformer.
Continued...
The function of this transformer is - some of the energy at the 4-
wire receive side from the mobile is coupled back to the 4-wire
transmit side and thus speech is retransmitted back to the
mobile.
s a result, all calls on to the PSTN must pass through an echo
canceller to remove what would otherwise be a noticeable and
annoying echo.
Continued...
The process of canceling echo involves two steps:
irst, as the call is set up, the echo canceller employs a digital
adaptive filter to set up a model or characterization of the voice
signal and echo passing through the echo canceller. s a voice
path passes back through the cancellation system, the echo
canceller compares the signal and the model to dynamically
cancel existing echo. t removes more than 80 to 90 percent of
the echo across the network.
The second process utilizes a non-linear processor (NLP) to
eliminate the remaining residual echo by attenuating the signal
below the noise floor.
%ra3scoder a3d Rate Adaptor U3it (%RAU) %ra3scoder a3d Rate Adaptor U3it (%RAU)
The primary function of the TRU is to convert 6kps (inc
signaling) GSM speech channels to 64kbps PCM channels in the
uplink direction and the reverse in the downlink direction. The
reason this process is necessary is because MSCs only switch
at the 64kbps channel level.
%RAU ocatio3s %RAU ocatio3s
TRU can be physically located in the BTS, BSC or MSC and hence leads
to a variety of installation configurations.
Adva3taes of iffere3t Co3fiuratio3s Adva3taes of iffere3t Co3fiuratio3s
Case , TRU at BTS: f the TRU is installed at the BTS, each
6kbps GSM channel would need to be mapped to its own
64kbps PCM channel. This results in 75% of the transmission
bandwidth being wasted across both the bis (BTS-BSC) and
(BSC-MSC) interface.
Case 2, TRU at BSC: f the TRU is installed at the BSC, 6kbps
GSM channel mapped to 64kbps at the (BSC-MSC) interface,
which increases the requirement of the Transmission trunks.
Case 3, TRU at MSC: f the TRU is placed at the MSC, as is generally
the case in current networks, a multiplexer can be placed at the BTS
which enables 4 x 6kbps GSM channels to be multiplexed onto one
64kbps PCM channel, using 4 x 6kbps SDN D-channels. n this
configuration, only at arrival at the MSC is the 6-64kbps channel
conversion necessary, thereby maximizing the efficient usage of the
transmission medium by increasing the GSM channel throughput per
PCM 2048 bearer from 30 to 20 channels.
Operatio3 A3d Mai3te3a3ce Ce3ter (OMC) Operatio3 A3d Mai3te3a3ce Ce3ter (OMC)
The OMC centralizes all operations and maintenance activities for the MSCs and
BSSs using remote software control. t provides remote testing, operations,
and maintenance capabilities for the entire system from one central location.
Each BSS, MSC, HLR, VLR, ER, and UC can be monitored and controlled
from the OMC.
OMC u3ctio3aI Architecture OMC u3ctio3aI Architecture
Operating
System
Communications
Handler
Database
MMI
Event/ Alarm
Management
Security
Management
Fault
Management
PerIormance
Management
ConIiguration
Management
The OMC supports the following network management functions:
Event Management - General functions of the OMC include
operator input and output messages, application input
commands, and application output reports.
ault Management - The OMC provides fault management such
as diagnostics and alarms for the MSC and BSS. t provides the
means to isolate and minimize the effects of faults in the network
thereby enabling the network to operate in efficient manner.
Continued...
Security Management t provides an extensive range of features to
ensure that access to the OMC functions is restricted to relevant
personnel.
The security features are as follows:
Password uthentication of OMC operator
Logging of OMC access attempt
Configurable user access restrictions
utomatic logoff
Configuration Management - Configuration management for the
BSS consists of generic download, non-volatile memory
download, database administration, and translations download.
or the MSC, software release updates, database administration
(route analysis, MS analysis table), and subscriber
administration (connect/disconnect) are supported.
Performance Management - Performance management supports
data collection (such as traffic data, handovers, statistics, plant
measurements, and volume data) and basic reporting.
iIIi3 Ce3ter iIIi3 Ce3ter
Charging analysis is the process of analysing the Charging Case and then
ultimately generating the TT (Toll Ticketing) record so that an itemised bill can
be produced and then sent on to the customer.
The tariff structure consists of two parts:
The network access component
The network utilization component
The network utilization component is registered on a per call basis.
Charging starts at the moment the subscriber answers, or on connection
to an answering machine internally in the network.
The main elements are:
Use of GSM PLMNs
Use of national / international PSTNs
Use of connection between different networks
Use of the signaling system no.7
Depending on the type of call, one or more call tickets can be generated:
Outgoing call to fixed network: a call tickets is generated by the
originating MSC.
ncoming call from the fixed network: two call tickets are created: one in
the GMSC and another in the destination MSC. f a call forwarding
supplementary service is in operation, other call tickets are generated in
the MSC and the GMSC.
Continued...
Outgoing call from a mobile subscriber to another mobile
subscriber belonging to same PLMN: three call tickets are
created: one in the originating MSC, one in the GMSC (which
is in this case is the originating MSC) and another in the
destination MSC.
Call tickets mainly register the following information:
. MS
2. dentity (MSSDN) and type (MSC or GMSC)
3. Mobile subscriber location identity
4. Other party's identity
5. Call type (incoming, outgoing, forwarded etc)
6. Call status
7. Teleservices and bearer service
8. Date and time
9. Call duration
CaII etaiI Record (CRs) CaII etaiI Record (CRs)
Each call within the PLMN creates one or more call records
These records is generated by the MSC/GMSC originating the
call
The records are known as a 'Call Detail Records' (CDRs)
CDRs contain the following information:
- Subscriber dentity
- Number called
- Call Length
- Route of call
Often referred to as 'Toll Tickets'
CaII Chare !rocedure CaII Chare !rocedure
Network supplies originating MS with C details
MS calculates OC record using C details
This record acts as a 'toll ticket' which tracks the call on its route
through various networks
Each call component can generate a separate CDR
The record passes along the backbone to the home network
Billing computer generates bills based on cumulative CDRs
HPLMN collects the charges
HPLM reimburses VPLMN using TPs in accordance with
roaming agreement
The Transferred ccount Procedure (TP) is the mechanism by which
operators exchange roaming billing information. This is how roaming
partners are able to bill each other for the use of networks and services
through a standard process.
Gateway MSC (GMSC) Gateway MSC (GMSC)
Gateway MSC (GMSC) connects the PLMN with other networks and the
entry point for the mobile subscriber calls having the interrogation
facility. t has the function to obtain the information from the HLR
about the subscriber's current location and reroute the calls
accordingly.
n case of the network having only on MSC, the same MSC work as the
GMSC, while in the case having more than one MSC, one dedicated
MSC works as GMSC.
Roami3 umber Roami3 umber
MSRN is used during the call setup phase for mobile terminating calls. Each
mobile terminating call enters the GMSC in the PLMN. The call is then re-
routed by the GMSC, to the MSC where the called mobile subscriber is
located. or this purpose, a unique number (MSRN) is allocated by the MSC
and provided to the GMSC.
CaII Setup CaII Setup
. GMSC receives a signaling message "nitial ddress
Message" for the incoming call (MSSDN).
2. GMSC sends a signaling message to the HLR where the
subscriber data is stored (MSSDN).
3. The VLR address that corresponds to the subscriber location
and the MS are retrieved. HLR sends a signaling message
using the VLR address as the destination (MS).
4. VLR having received the message, requests MSC to seize an
idle MSRN and to associate it with the MS received. VLR
sends back the result to the HLR (MSRN).
5. HLR sends back the result to the GMSC (MSRN).
6. GMSC uses MSRN to re-route the call to the MSC. MSC performs
digit analysis on the received MSRN and find the association with
MS. The MSRN is released and the MS is used for the final
establishment of the call.
%ra3sit Switch %ra3sit Switch
When planning the trunk network architecture, it is important to take
into consideration the future expansion of the network.
Some factors that influence the trunk network configuration are:
Number of MSCs
Transmission costs
Traffic distribution
Traffic volume
PSTN tariffs
n case of a medium networks (having 5 - 0 MSCs), some of the
MSCs are used as transits for the others and the number of
direct links between the MSCs are restricted.
n case of large networks (having more than 0 MSCs), separate
transit exchanges are used. These are connected to all MSCs
and are working with load sharing.
Transit functionality is used for passing on calls to another node.
This provides a hierarchical structured network.
High Usage trunk
Traffic between MSCs and from MSCs to other networks is routed over two
MSCs in a similar way as is used for the small network. The TGMSCs
are used as interconnecting exchanges, since they have trunks to all
MSCs in the operators PLMN.
MSCs located in the same city area or in close cities are likely to be
interconnected by high usage routes, while traffic between distant MSCs
is likely more economically routed over the TMSCs.
AVA%AGS O USG %RAS% CHAGS AVA%AGS O USG %RAS% CHAGS
The use of transit exchanges implies a more stable network structure and some
of the most important benefits are:
increased flexibility
enhanced reliability
easily expandable network
platform for functional development
lower handling costs
improved signaling network
VaIue Added Services VaIue Added Services
Value dded Services includes the following:
Point-to-Point Short Message Services
Cell Broadcast Short Message Service
Voice/ax Mail
Pre-Paid SM
The products associated with each of these services as well as the required
interfaces into the core network elements are defined as:
Short Messae Services (SMS) Short Messae Services (SMS)
The Point-to-Point and Cell Broadcast Short Message Services are implemented
using the Short Message Service Center (SMSC) and Cell Broadcast Center
(CBC).
SMSC is built around proven Open Systems Platforms from the UNX based
computer platform to the MSC/HLR/VLR interfaces utilizing SS7.
ollowing are the services and functions for which SMSC is
capable of:
lerting services to indicate call or message waiting
Paging interfaces providing full industry standard TP
interworking
nformation services - subscription to financial, weather, traffic,
etc. services
DTM message entry via interactive voice prompts
E-mail
Network administration including bill reminders, statements on
demand, network
service information and handset reprogramming.
The CBC product is based on the same Open Systems Platforms with an
X.25 interface to BSC components. t offers a wide range of
applications, which include advertising, general and specialist
information distribution services along with other non-mobile terminal
applications. The services and functionality that the CBC can provide
includes:
Customer care information
Weather and traffic reports
ree advertising
Variable re-transmission rates
Distributed network interface units to handle varying network loads
Local and remote message submission facility.
SMS etwork Compo3e3ts SMS etwork Compo3e3ts
Callers which cannot reach the MS are given the option (by the VMS) to
leave either a short messae or a voice maiI messae. Message
waiting notification will be delivered to the MS when the MS is
reachable. The VMS (voice mail system) communicates with the SMS
SC via TCP/P or X.25.
The VMS has a trunk and signaling interface to the PSTN (e.g., R2, SUP
signaling). The VMS has a trunk and signaling interface to the MSC for
mobile subscriber to access his/her voice mail.
SMS AppIicatio3s SMS AppIicatio3s
SMS up to 60 alphanumeric characters.
lert services (MT-SMS)
Voice Message lert
X/Telex Message lert
E-mail System lert
Paging Bureau Emulation Services.
nformation Services
inancial Services (stock market queries and alerts)
Weather or traffic information (e.g., from TV/radio station data
feeds)
Network dministration
Bill reminders (MT-SMS), bill payment
Statements on demand (MO and MT-SMS)
Handset re-programming and much more.
VMS VMS
t supports a wide range of innovative applications including:
Call answering
Voice and fax bulletin boards
nformation on demand
One number services
Voice and fax messaging
nteractive voice response
Prepaid calling cards
Voice activated dialing
!re !aid SM !re !aid SM
The functionality of the Pre-Paid SM feature includes:
Provision of pre-defined limits based on air time or talk time
Service provisioning including various provisioning options (point
of sale, service providers, etc.) and definitions of pre-paid
categories (throw away, top up, etc.)
Service execution for air and talk time credit usage
GSM MP services, teleservice, bearer services and
supplementary services will all be available to the Pre-Paid SM
subscriber, with possible limitations, as required by the network
operator.
SuppIeme3tary Services SuppIeme3tary Services
Wide range available in GSM standard and Operators can also define their own
n GSM it is possible for the subscribers to check and modify
the parameters and status of their Supplementary Services
Some of the Supplementary Services are:
Calling Line dentification/Restriction
Connected Line dentification/Restriction
Call orwarding
Call Waiting
Call Hold
Conference Calling
Conference Calling
dvice of charge
Call barring
ercise ercise
". Write a full form of following : ME, TMS, MSRN, L, ST,
STP, SSP
"2. How many circuit groups are required for 3 BSCs and 0
PSTN?
"3. List down the three functions of each HLR & VLR.
"4. ill in the following:
E interface is used between ------
H interface is used between-------
lgorithm 8 is used for ----------
lgorithm 3 is used for ----------
Transit exchanges are used to reduce the ---------
"5. List down the different locations of TRU and explain the best
position.
"6. What information is contained in the CDRs?
"7. 2 advantages of transit switch.
"8. Name some of supplementary services.
GSM Si3aIi3 GSM Si3aIi3
Section 4 - GSM Signaling
Objective Objective
signaling between MSC/VLR and BSS
Concept of DTP
Concept of BSSMP
signaling between BSC and BTS
unctions of LPDm
unctions of LPD
rame structure of LPDm nd LPD
There are two different types of communication channels:
Traffic channel at 64 Kbps, carrying speech or data for radio
channels.
signaling channels at 64Kbps, carrying signaling information.
n PCM one time slot is reserved for signaling and remaining are
used for transmitting speech or data. s the entire siganlling is
done on 64Kbps , there should be special function converting the
information to 64Kbps format and back at the receiving end.
!rotocoIs i3 GSM etworks !rotocoIs i3 GSM etworks
VLR
VLR
MSC
AUC
HLR EIR
BSC
BTS
BSSAP
LAPD
MAP MAP
MAP
MAP
MAP
ISDN
GMSC
MSC
PSTN
ISUP
ISUP
MAP
TUP
MS
LAPDm
Switching System
Base
Station
System
GSM Si3aIi3 Matri GSM Si3aIi3 Matri
LAPDm
MS
BTS MSC
DTAP
RR
RIL3
RIL3 RSM
LAPDm LAPD
BSC
RSM
BSSMAP
BSSAP
LAPD
SCCP
MTP2 &3
MTP1
MTP1
MTP2 & 3
SCCP
BSSAP
DTAP
BSS
MAP
MAP
TCAP
ISUP
Database
MSC uses SUP/TUP protocols for PSTN signaling.
MP siganlling for database applications like HLR, VLR, ER,
UC, SMS-SC, GMSC.
GSM specific protocol as BSSP, which comprises of DTP and
BSSMP.
The BSC on layer 2 uses LPD protocol, which is an SDN.
BTS has LPDm as layer 2 protocol.
Mobile has DTP for MSC and RR for Radio Resource
signaling.
MA! (MobiIe AppIicatio3 !art) MA! (MobiIe AppIicatio3 !art)
MP is a protocol specially designed for GSM requirement. t is installed
in MSC, VLR, HLR, ER and communicates in case of:
Location registration
Location cancellation
Handling/management/ retrieval of subscriber data.
Handover
Transfer of security/ authentication data.
SS AppIicatio3 !art (SSA!) SS AppIicatio3 !art (SSA!)
BSSP is used for signaling between MSC/VLR and BSS. Three groups of
signals belong to BSSP
. DTP
2. BSSMP
3. nitial MS messages
M
S
C
M
S
BSC/BTS
DTAP
Initial MS Message
BSSMAP
LAPDm
Transparent to BSS
irect %ra3sfer AppIicatio3 !art (%A!) irect %ra3sfer AppIicatio3 !art (%A!)
DTP is a messages between the MSC and MS, passes through the BSS
transparently. These are call control and mobility management
messages directed towards a specific mobile.
3 main type of DTP messages are:
Messages for mobility management like location update, authentication,
identity request
Messages for circuit mode connections call control
Messages for supplementary services
SSMA! SSMA!
BSS management messages (BSSMP) between MSC and BSS (BSC/ BTS),
which are necessary for resource management, handover control, paging
order etc. The BSSMP messages can either be connection less or
connection oriented.
3itiaI MS Messaes 3itiaI MS Messaes
These messages are passed unchanged through BSS, but BSS
analyses part of the messages and is not transparent like DTP
messages.
Between BSS and MSC, the initial MS message is transferred in the
layer 3 information in the BSSMP.
The nitial MS messages are:
CM Request
Location update request
Paging response
A!m A!m
Link ccess Procedures on the Dm channel (LPDm) is the layer 2
protocol used to convey signaling information between layer 3
entities across the radio interface. Dm channel refers to the
control channels, independent of the type including broadcast,
common or dedicated control channels.
LPDm is based on the SDN protocol LPD, used on the bis
interface. Due to the radio environment, the LPD protocol can
not be used in its original form. Therefore, LPDm segments the
message into a number of shorter messages.
Data exchanged between the data link layer and the physical layer
is 23 octets for BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH and CCH. or SCCH
only, 2octets are sent from layer 2 to layer .
LPDm functions include:
LPDm provides one or more data link connections on a
Dm channel. Data Link Connection dentifier (DLC) is used for
discriminating between data link connections.
t allows layer 3 message units be delivered transparently
between layer 3 entities.
t provides sequence control to maintain the sequential order of
frames across the data link connections.
A!m rame Structure A!m rame Structure
info length command address
N(R) P/ N(S) 0
0 0 SP CR
Sequence Number: N(S) send sequence number of the
transmitted frame. N(R) is receive sequence number.
P/ : ll frames contain the Poll/inal bit. n command frames, the
P/ bit is referred to as the P bit. n response frames, the P/ bit
is referred to as the bit.
Service ccess Point dentifier: Service ccess Points (SPs) of a
layer are defined as gates through which services are offered to
an adjacent higher layer.SP is identified with the Service
ccess Point dentifier (SP).
SP = 0 for normal signaling of DTP & RR
SP = 3 for short message services
LPDm has no error detection and correction. t is used in two modes:
cknowledge &
Unacknowledged
and having a different structure for both.
A! A!
ll signaling messages on the bis interface use the Link ccess
Procedures on the D-channel. (LPD protocol). LPD provides two
kinds of signaling:
unacknowledged information
acknowledged information
LPD link handling is a basic function to provide data links on the 64 kbps
physical connections between BSC and BTS.
Links are provided for operation and maintenance (O&M) of the
links, for O&M of the BTS equipment and for transmission of
layer 3 bis messages.
Each physical connection can support a number of data links
(logical connections). On each physical connection each data
link is identified by a unique TE/SP
LPD has three sub signaling channels
. RSL (Radio signaling Link), deals with traffic management,
TRX signaling.
2. OML (Operation & Maintenance Link), serves for maintenance
related info and transmission of traffic statistics.
3. L2M (Layer 2 Management), used for management of the
different signaling on the same time slot.
A! rame Structure A! rame Structure
lag CS info length command address lag
N(R ) P/ N(S) 0 TE SP CR 0
LPD rame structure is made up of:
lag: ndicates the beginning and end of each frame unit. lag has
a pattern of 00.
CS: rame Check Sequence, provides the error checking for the
frame. f error is found frame will be retransmitted.
Command: t has two types of structure, in acknowledge mode it
has N(S) and N(R ). N(S) is a sequence number of frame sent
and N(R ) is the sequence number of the frame expected to
receive next.
C/R: This bit indicates whether it is command or response.
P/: n command frames, the P/ bit is referred to as the P bit and
the other end transmits the response by setting this bit to .
TE: Terminal Endpoint dentifier, is a unique identification of each
physical entity on either side like each TRX within a BTS have a
unique TE.
SP: Service ccess Point dentifier, used to identify the type of link.
SP = 0 for RSL
SP = 62 for OML
SP = 63 for L2ML
Each LPD link is identify by SP/TE pair.
ercise ercise
". Name the protocol which is transparent to BSS and what information is
used to transfer on this protocol?
"2. Name the protocols used between
Mobile and BTS
BTS and BSC
BSC to MSC
MSC to PSTN
CaII Ha3dIi3 CaII Ha3dIi3
Section 5 - Call Handling
Objective Objective
Basic call concepts
Location rea concepts
Call setup in different scenarios
SMS routing
ntra and nter MSC handovers
Call setup is required to establish communication between a Mobile
Station and Network Subsystem (NSS). The NSS is responsible for
establishing a connection with the corresponded. Different types of calls
require different teleservices.
or the optimum utilization of the network, different location areas will be
defined to reduce the paging load on the system.
asic %ypes of CaIIs asic %ypes of CaIIs
There are three basic types of call:
. Mobility Management calls: Such as Location update. These
are used to collect information about the MS and only
signaling channels are used.
2. Service calls: Such as SMS. These calls passes very small
information, therefore signaling channels are used.
3. User traffic calls: Such as speech or data. Large amount of
data is exchanged hence traffic channels are used.
asic CaII Setup asic CaII Setup
Subscriber on switch places a call to a Subscriber on switch B:
. Switch analyzes the dialed digits and determines that it needs
to send the call to switch B.
2. Switch selects an idle trunk between itself and switch B
and formulate M
3. STP W receives a message, inspects its routing label, and
determines that it is to be routed to switch B.
4. Switch B receives the message. On analyzing the message, it
determines that it serves the called number and that the called
number is idle.
5. Switch B formulates an address complete message (CM),
which indicates that the M has reached its proper destination.
6. Switch B picks one of its links and transmits the CM over the
link for routing to switch .
7. STP X receives the message, inspects its routing label, and
determines that it is to be routed to switch .
8. On receiving the CM, switch connects the calling
subscriber
9. When and/or if the called subscriber picks up the phone,
switch B formulates an answer message (NM),
0. Switch B selects the same link it used to transmit the CM
. STP X recognizes that the NM is addressed to switch and
forwards it over link
2. Switch ensures that the calling subscriber is connected and
conversation can take place.
3. f the calling subscriber hangs up first switch will generate a
release message (REL) addressed to switch B.
4. STP W receives the REL
5. Switch B receives the REL, disconnects the trunk from the
subscriber line, returns the trunk to idle status.
6. STP X receives the RLC, determines that it is addressed to
switch .
7. On receiving the RLC, switch idles the identified trunk.
ocatio3 Reistratio3 ocatio3 Reistratio3
When the mobile is turned on first time in the network, it has no indications
in its data about an old Location rea dentity. MS immediately inform
the network and request for the Location Update to the MSC/ VLR.
fter registration MSC/ VLR will consider the MS as active and marked
the MS as "attached.
ocatio3 Update ocatio3 Update
When the MS moves from one L to another, it has to register. This
registration is performed when the MS detects another L than the
one stored. This is called location updating. This function provides
mobile subscribers with uninterrupted service throughout the GSM
coverage area so that they can:
Be called on a permanent directory number irrespective of their
location at the time of call.
ccess the network whatever their position
There are four different types of location updating:
O Normal
OMS detach
OMS attach
OPeriodic registration
ormaI Update ormaI Update
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) of every cell continually
transmits the Location rea dentity (L) on BCCH.
f MS detects L is different from the one stored in the SM-card,
it is forced to do a location update.
f the mobile subscriber is unknown in the MSC/VLR (new
subscriber) then the new MSC/VLR must be updated, from the
HLR, with subscriber information.
t also consider the case of the location update timer runs out.
. The MS requests a location update to be carried out in the new
MSC/VLR. The MS is used to identify the MS.
2. n the new MSC/VLR, an analysis of the MS number is carried out.
The result of this analysis is a modification of the MS to a Mobile
Global Title (MGT)
3. The new MSC/VLR requests the subscriber information for the MS
from the HLR.
4. The HLR stores the address of the new MSC/VLR and sends the
subscriber data to the new MSC/VLR.
5. The HLR also orders the old serving MSC/VLR to cancel all
information about the subscriber since the MS is now served by
another MSC/VLR.
6. When the new MSC/VLR receives the information from the HLR, it
will send a location updating confirmation message to the MS.
MS etach MS etach
The MS must inform the network when it is entering an
inactive state (detach).
. t power off or when the SM card is taken out, the MS asks
for a signaling channel
2. The MS uses this signaling channel to send the MS detach
message to the MSC/VLR.
3. n the VLR, an MS detach flag is set for the subscriber which
is used to reject incoming calls to the MS.
The detach will not be acknowledged.
O3Iy the VR is updated with the "detached" i3formatio3. O3Iy the VR is updated with the "detached" i3formatio3.
MS Attach MS Attach
The attach procedure is performed only when the MS is turned on
and is in the same L as it was when it sent the detach
message. f the MS changes location area while being
switched off, it is forced to do a normal location update. The
procedure is as follows
. The MS requesting a signaling channel.
2. The MSC/VLR receives the MS attach message from the
MS.
3. The MSC/VLR sets the MS attach in the VLR, that is, the
mobile is ready for normal call handling.
4. The VLR returns an acknowledgment to the MS.
!eriodic ocatio3 Update !eriodic ocatio3 Update
To avoid unnecessary paging of the MS in case the MSC never got
the MS detach message, there is another type of location
updating called periodic registration.
The procedure is controlled by timers both in the MS and in the
MSC.
f the MS does not register within the determined interval plus a
guard time, then the scanning function in the MSC detects this
and the MS will be marked detached.
!ai3 !ai3
call to MS is routed to the MSC/ VLR and send a paging message to
the MS. This message is broadcast all over the Location rea (L),
which means that all BTSs with in the L will send a paging message
to the mobile. The MS, moving in the L and listening to the CCCH
information, will hear the paging message and answer it immediately.
!ai3 Capacity !ai3 Capacity
Paging capacity is the number of
mobiles that can be paged per
second
This depends on:
CCCH configuration
GCH blocks reservation
Type of paging message used
Paging message takes 4 bursts
( CCCH block)
This can page up to 4 mobiles
depending on the message type
used
!ai3 Messae %ypes !ai3 Messae %ypes
Type : can address up to two mobiles using either MS or TMS
Type 2: can address up to 3 mobiles, one by MS and other 2
by TMS.
Type 3: can address up to 4 mobiles using the TMS only.
f the network does not use TMS then only type is used in the network.
CaIcuIatio3 Of !ai3 Capacity CaIcuIatio3 Of !ai3 Capacity
X number oI mobiles paged per paging message (1 to 4)
Y number oI possible paging messages per multiIrame
Duration oI channel multiIrame 0.235 seconds (235 ms)
X depends on paging message type
Y depends on CCCH conIiguration in the multiIrame (e.g.
3 or 9) and the number oI AGCH blocks reserved
!CH ime3sio3i3 !CH ime3sio3i3
Paging channel requirement in blocks per multiframe is given by:
Calls Number oI calls predicted Ior the location area during
busy hour
MT Fraction oI calls which are mobile terminated
PF Paging Factor number oI pages required per call
M saIety margin
PMF Paging Message Factor number oI pages per
message
Number oI control channel multiIrames per second 4.25
ampIe ampIe
particular location area contains 50 000 subscribers. t is predicted that
30% of these will receive a call during the busy hour. On average 2
pages are needed per call and only type 3 paging messages (TMS) are
used.
This gives the Iollowing data:
Calls 50 000
MT 0.3
PF 2
PMF 4
typical safety margin for peak variations in number of calls is .2
1 PCH block per multiIrame will be adequate
!ai3 Co3troI !ai3 Co3troI
The MSC has to initiate the paging procedure, as it holds the information
on the last MS location update.
MSC sends a paging message to BSC and sets a timer for response from
the MS, which is send as a part of service request message. The paging
message from the MSC contains a cell list identifier, identifying the cells
in which paging message is to be transmitted.
CaII rom MS (MobiIe to !S%) CaII rom MS (MobiIe to !S%)
cb
VLR
MSC
Exch
PSTN
PLMN
CaII rom MS Overview CaII rom MS Overview
Mobile is active and idle, wants to set up a call
User dial the number and press send, at first moment it sends on
RCH
MSC/VLR assigns a dedicated channel
f the calling MS is allowed to make a call MSC/VLR
acknowledges the access request
Depending on whether a fixed or a mobile subscriber is called,
number is analyzed directly in the MSC/VLR.
Call setup message is acknowledged as soon as the link is
ready.
MS is also assigned to move to a dedicated traffic channel TCH.
Si3aIi3 3terfaces Si3aIi3 3terfaces
BSC
VLR
MSC
LAPDm
LAPD
DTAP
BSSMAP
PLMN ISDN/
PSTN
ISUP/TUP
!oi3t Of 3terco33ect (!O) ocatio3 !oi3t Of 3terco33ect (!O) ocatio3
n case of long distance mobile to PSTN call, circuits define to route a call in the
switch should be such that, call can travel maximum distance on the airtime
and minimum on the land line to enhance the revenue.
Call should handover to the PO as near as possible to the subscriber location.
CaII to MS (!S% to MobiIe) CaII to MS (!S% to MobiIe)
GMSC
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
MSISDN
Link is setup Irom local
exchange to the GMSC
GMSC
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
HLR
signaling No.7: Interrogation
Iunction used by GMSC
MSISDN
MSRN request
GMSC
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
HLR
VLR
MSC
signaling No7: Request
Ior MSRN to VLR
IMSI
GMSC
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
HLR
VLR
MSC
IMSI
MSRN in VLR.
signaling No 7: MSRN
send to GMSC
MSRN request IMSI MSRN
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
VLR
MSC
GMSC
Link is setup Irom GMSC to
MSC/VLR
HLR
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
VLR
MSC
GMSC HLR
BSC
signaling No7: Paging
message is sent to the BSS
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
VLR
MSC
GMSC
HLR
BSC
Air path signaling:
Paging message is
sent over the air
path to MS. The MS
answers.
GSM/PLMN
PSTN
VLR
MSC
GMSC
HLR
BSC
The link is setup Irom
the MSC/VLR to the
MS, completing the
connection Irom
subscriber to
subscriber
Si3aIi3 3terfaces Si3aIi3 3terfaces
BSC
VLR
MSC
LAPDm
LAPD
DTAP
BSSMAP
PLMN
ISDN/
PSTN
ISUP/TUP
HLR
GMSC
MAP
ISUP/TUP
MobiIe to MobiIe (MobiIe Orii3ated) MobiIe to MobiIe (MobiIe Orii3ated)
MS
BTS BSC MSC
Channel Request
rn Channel Request
rnInTA
SDDCH Allocation
TASDDCHpower
Channel Activation
SCCP Connection Req
Immediate assign (AGCH)
Immediate assign commd
Switch to
SDDCH
rnInTA SDCCH
Channel Activation Ack
SABM
Establish Indication
SCCP Connection ConIirm
Service Request
Service Request
UA
CmService Request
MS
BTS BSC
MSC
Setup (SDCCH)
Tele/bearer service
called party no.
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Call proceeding
Assignment request
Channel typecm
TCH allocation
Physical context request
Physical context conIirm
PowerTA
Channel activation
TCHTAcipherDTX
power
SACCH
TApower updates
Channel activation ack
Assignment command (SDCCH)
Release
SDCCH
MS
BTS BSC
MSC
SABM (FACCH)
Establish indication
UA (FACCH)
Set
transcoder
Assignment complete (FACCH)
Set switching
path
alerting
connect
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Connect ack
Initiate SDCCH release
MobiIe to MobiIe (MobiIe %ermi3ated) MobiIe to MobiIe (MobiIe %ermi3ated)
MS BTS BSC MSC
Paging
TMSI/IMSIcell list
Paging command
TMSI/IMSI paging
group channel no
TMSI/IMSI
Paging request (PCH)
Paging request (RACH)
Channel required
Radio and Link Establishment Procedure
MS
BTS BSC
MSC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Setup
Tele/bearer service
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Call conIirmed (SDCCH)
bearer service
Normal Assignment Procedure Ior TCH
alerting
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
connect
Layer 3CC
Layer 3CC
Connect acknowledge
Ring tone
User answer
SMS !oi3t to !oi3t SMS !oi3t to !oi3t
The Short Message Service, SMS, provides means of sending text
messages, to and from GSM mobile station. SMS makes use of service
centre, which acts a store and forward center for short messages.
MobiIe %ermi3ated SMS MobiIe %ermi3ated SMS
SMS - C SMS - GMSC MSC/VLR
HLR
SMS C has the capability to transfer the short messages and also
provides the information about the delivery.
. user sends a message to an SMS C
2. SMS C sends the message to the SMS GMSC
3. SMS GMSC interrogates the HLR for routing information
4. HLR interrogates MSC/VLR for a roaming number
5. MSC/VLR returns a MSRN to the SMS GMSC via HLR
6. SMS GMSC reroutes the message to MSC/VLR
Continued...
7. MS is paged and a connection is setup between MS and the
network.
8. f authentication was successful the MSC/VLR delivers the
message to the MS. t is transmitted on the allocated SDCCH
9. f the delivery was successful a delivery report is sent from
MSC/VLR to the SMS C.
n the case of an unsuccessful delivery the service messages
waiting will provide the HLR and VLR with the information that
there is a message in the originating SMS C waiting to be
delivered to the MS.
MobiIe Orii3ated SMS MobiIe Orii3ated SMS
MSC/VLR SMS - C
. MS establishes a connection to the network, as in the case of normal
call setup. (This step is not performed if the MS is in busy mode,
since there already exists a connection)
2. f the authentication was successful MS sends the short message to
the SMS C via MSC/VLR. The SMS C in turn forward the short
message to its destination. This could be MS or a terminal in the
fixed network.
Ha3dover Ha3dover
Changing to a new traffic channel during call setup or busy state is called
Handover. The network makes the decision about the change. fter
receiving the information about the signal strength and quality the BSC
ranks the neighboring BTSs using the information.
fter a evaluation of the situation and the decision to start the handover
procedure, the network is responsible for the setup of a link to the new
BTS.
3tra MSC Ha3dover 3tra MSC Ha3dover
BSC
BSC
VLR
MSC
New link
Old link
ntra MSC handover: Handover within the same MSC/VLR service
area but different BSCs.
The BSC request for a handover from MSC/VLR
New link (MSC/VLR to new BSC to new BTS) is setup and if a
free TCH is available, it must be reserved.
MS receives the order to change to the new frequency and the
new TCH.
f the BTS change has also change of location area, the MS
sends a request for location update after the call.
Iowchart Iowchart
BSC2 MSC BSC1 MS
H.O. Request
H.O. Required
H.O. Request Ack
H.O. Command
H.O. Command
Measurement Report
H.O. Completed
H.O. Completed
Clear Command
Clear Completed
3ter MSC Ha3dover 3ter MSC Ha3dover
BSC
VLR
MSC
VLR
MSC
BSC
New link
Old link
nter MSC handover: handover between the two BSCs controlled by two
different MScs. Lot of signals exchanges are required before the
handover can take place.
The serving exchange sends a handover request to the target exchange
Target exchange will take over the responsibility for preparing the
connection to the new BTS.
fter the setup of a link between the two exchanges, the serving
exchange will send a handover command to the MS.
Iowchart Iowchart
VLR
(MSC-B)
BSC2 MSC-B MSC-A BSC1 MS
Measurement
Report
H.O.
Required
PerIorm H.O.
Allocate H.O.Number
Send H.O. Report
H.O. Request
H.O. Request
Ack
RAD CH Ack
I AM (ISUP)
ACM (ISUP)
H.O. Command
H.O. Command
H.O. Complete
H.O.
Complete
Send End
Signal
Clear Command
Clear Complete
ANS (ISUP)
ercise ercise
". Name the types of the location updates exists in the
mobile network?
"2. Describe the different kinds of paging messages?
"3. Calculate the paging capacity (mobiles paged per second) for
the following operator setting:
paging message type = 3
blocks reserved for CCCH and GCH = 3
"4. Calculate the PCH requirement for following:
Number of subscriber = 75,000
Busy hour calls = 40%
ssume on average 2 pages required per call
Safety margin for peak variation in number of calls =.2
Paging message of type 2
"5. Which part of the network allocates the MSRN to the call?
SS7 SS7
Section 6 - SS7
CO%%S CO%%S
ntroduction
Signaling Modes
CCS 7 Vs. CS
CCS 7 Link Types
CCS 7 Signaling Network
Signaling Network Components
CCS 7 rchitecture
CCS 7 unctional Blocks
MTP
Signaling Data link (Level )
Signaling Link unctions (Level 2)
Signaling Network unctions (Level 3)
MTP User unctions (Level 4)
Section 6 - SS7
unctions of Signaling Link (Level 2)
Organization of signaling nformation
Signal Units
Signal Unit Delimitation/ lag mitation Prevention
Error Detection
Error Correction
Basic Method
Positive ck
Negative ck
Preventive Cyclic Re-Transmission
Error Rate Monitoring
Signal Unit Error Rate Monitor
lignment Error Rate Monitor
Section 6 - SS7
Signaling Network unctions (level 3)
Service nformation Octet
Routing Label
Signaling Message Handling
Message Discrimination
Message Distribution
Message Routing
Signaling link Management
Link activation
Link restoration
low Control
Section 6 - SS7
Commo3 Cha33eI Si3aIi3 System o. 7 (i.e., SS7 or C7 ) is
a global standard for telecommunications defined by the
nternational Telecommunication Union (TU)Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (TU-T). The standard defines the
procedures and protocol by which network elements in the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) exchange information over
a digital signaling network to effect wireless (cellular) and wire
line call setup, routing and control.
Section 6 - SS7
The SS7 network and protocol are used for:
basic call setup, management, and tear down
- wireless services such as personal communications services
(PCS), wireless roaming, and mobile subscriber authentication
- local number portability (LNP)
- toll-free (800/888) and toll (900) wireline services
- enhanced call features such as call forwarding, calling party
name/number display, and three-way calling
- efficient and secure worldwide telecommunications
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 %ypes Si3aIi3 %ypes
There are two types of Signaling :
.Channel ssociated Signaling (CS)
2.Common Channel Signaling (CCS7)
Channel ssociated Signaling: signaling is always sent on the same
connection as that of speech.The Signaling is associated with speech.
Section 6 - SS7
Common Channel Signaling: signaling network is separated from the
speech network.Every signaling information will have a label which
indicates to which speech connection this signaling information belongs
to.The signaling channel has no specific position (timeslot).The same
signaling channel carries information for all speech circuits as and when
required basis.
Section 6 - SS7
Adva3tae Of CCS7 Over CAS Adva3tae Of CCS7 Over CAS
dedicated signaling link required for each speech channel in
CS e.g. 3 channels in 3 PCMs : CCS 7 uses only channel for
a number of PCMs
CS is slow, so longer call setup times : CCS 7 - 64kbps fast &
efficient.
n CS, no possibility of signaling during the talking phase :
CCS 7 signaling is independent of speech.
CS supports limited set of signals : CCS 7 supports signal units
of variable length max. 279 octets - so much more signaling info
can be exchanged than is possible with CS.
Section 6 - SS7
Usage of messages instead of pre-defined bit patterns enables to
transfer call related signaling info (call establishment) as well as non call
related call info ( location update , handover , short messages etc.)
CCS 7 - modular ; easy introduction of new & advanced services.
Section 6 - SS7
SS7 Si3aIi3 i3k %ypes SS7 Si3aIi3 i3k %ypes
Section 6 - SS7
Section 6 - SS7
C7 Si3aIi3 etwork C7 Si3aIi3 etwork
SP
(SPC)
SP
(SPC)
1 2 3 4 5 1
6
3
1
3
0
STP
SL(SLC)
SL(SLC)
SLS CIC
SP: Signaling Point
SPC: Signaling Point Code
STP: Signaling TransIer
Point
SL: Signaling Link
SLC: Signaling Link Code
SLS: Signaling Link Set
CIC: Circuit Identity code
Section 6 - SS7
si3aIi3 etwork Compo3e3ts si3aIi3 etwork Compo3e3ts
Signaling Points
logically separate entities from a signaling network point of
view.
Origination Point Code
signaling point at which a message is generated, i.e. the
location of the source User Part function, is the originating
point of that message.
Section 6 - SS7
Destination Point Code
signaling point to which a message is destined, i.e. the
location of the receiving User Part function, is the destination
point of that message.
Signal Transfer Point
signaling point at which a message is received on one
signaling link and is transferred to another link, i.e. neither the
location of the source nor the receiving User Part function, is
a Signal Transfer Point (STP).
For a particular signaling relation, the two signaling points thus function as
originating and destination points for the messages exchanged in the
two directions between them.
Section 6 - SS7
Signaling Links
The common channel carrying signaling information is called
Signaling link.
Link Set
number of signaling links that directly interconnect two
signaling points constitute a signaling link-set.
Signaling Routes
The pre-determined path, consisting of a succession of
SPs/STPs and the interconnecting signaling links, that a
message takes through the signaling network between the
origination point and the destination point is the signaling
route for that signaling relation
Section 6 - SS7
Signaling Modes
The term "signaling mode refers to the association between the
path taken by a signaling message and the signaling relation to
which the message refers.
Section 6 - SS7
TCAP !SUP TUP
SCCP
Signaling Network
Signaling link
Signaling data link
NTP
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4 : User Parts
Layer 3
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layers 4 to 7
CCS 7 Architecture CCS 7 Architecture
Section 6 - SS7
Messae %ra3sfer !art (M%!) Messae %ra3sfer !art (M%!)
unction:
to provide a reliable transfer and delivery of signaling
information across the signaling network and to have the
ability to react and take necessary actions in response to
system and network failures to ensure that reliable transfer is
maintained.
ncludes the functions of layers to 3 of the OS reference
model.
User functions in CCS 7 MTP terms are:
the SDN User Part (SUP)
the Telephone User Part (TUP)
Section 6 - SS7
the signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)
the Data User Part (DUP)
The SCCP also has Users. These are:
the SDN User Part (SUP)
Transaction Capabilities (TC)
Operations Maintenance and dministration Part (OMP)
Section 6 - SS7
u3ctio3s of M%! u3ctio3s of M%!
Nessage
handling
signaling link
signaling data
link
Network
management
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
f
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 ata i3k (M%! eveI 1 ) Si3aIi3 ata i3k (M%! eveI 1 )
Defines the physical, electrical and functional characteristics and the
physical interface towards the transmission medium (PCM30)
signaling Data Link is a bi-directional transmission path for signaling
consisting of two data channels operating together in opposite
directions at the same data rate.
Digital : 64 kbps channels. or PCM30 HDB3 coding is used
inimum allowed bit rate for telephone call control application :
4.8kbps
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 i3k u3ctio3s (M%! eveI 2) Si3aIi3 i3k u3ctio3s (M%! eveI 2)
Together with signaling data link, the signaling link functions provide a
signaling link for the reliable transfer of signaling messages between
two adjacent signaling points.
Messages are transferred over signaling link in variable length
messages called signal Units which contain additional information to
guarantee a secure transmission.
Section 6 - SS7
unctions:
Delimitation of signaling units by means of lags.
lag limitation prevention by bit stuffing.
Error detection by means of Check bits included in each
signaling unit.
Error control by re-transmission and signaling unit sequence
control by means of sequence numbers and continuous
CKs
Signaling link failure detection by signaling unit error rate
monitoring and signaling link recovery by special procedures.
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 etwork u3ctio3s (M%! eveI 3) Si3aIi3 etwork u3ctio3s (M%! eveI 3)
Level 3 in principle defines those transport functions and
procedures that are common to and independent of the
operation of individual signaling links.
These functions fall into two major categories:
$ignaling message handling functions These transfer the
message to the proper signaling link or User Part.The main
functions are:-
Message discrimination function
Message distribution function
Message routing function
Section 6 - SS7
signaling network management functions These control the current
message routing and configuration of the signaling network facilities
and in the case of signaling network failures, control the
reconfigurations and other actions to preserve or restore the normal
message transfer capability. Contains signaling link management,
traffic management and route management.The main functions are:-
Signaling link management
Signaling traffic management
Signaling route management
Section 6 - SS7
M%! User fu3ctio3s (eveI 4) M%! User fu3ctio3s (eveI 4)
User Parts defines the functions and procedures of the signaling
system that are particular to a certain type of user of the system.
The following entities are defined as User Parts in CCS 7.
Telephone User Part (TUP)
The TUP Recommendations define the international
telephone call control signaling functions for use over CCS 7.
Data User Part (DUP)
The Data User Part defines the protocol to control
interexchange circuits used on data calls, and data call
facility registration and cancellation.
Section 6 - SS7
SDN User Part (SUP)
The SUP encompasses signaling functions required to
provide switched services and user facilities for voice and
non-voice applications in the SDN.
Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)
The SCCP provides additional functions to the Message
Transfer Part to provide connectionless and connection-
oriented network services to transfer circuit-related, and non-
circuit-related signaling information.
Key Enhancements by SCCP
Section 6 - SS7
Enhanced ddressing Capability
upto 255 users can be addressed by the use of Subsystem
Numbers (SSN)
SCCP provides a routing function which allows signaling
messages to be routed to a signaling point based on, for
example, dialled digits. This capability involves a translation
function which translates the global title (e.g. dialled digits)
into a signaling point code and a sub-system number.
Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Services
Class 0 : basic connectionless service
Class : sequenced connectionless service
Class 2 : basic connection-oriented service
Class 3 : flow control connection-oriented service
Section 6 - SS7
%CA! %CA!
TCP provides services for non-circuit related services.TCP
receives messages from SCCP and routes it to the user.TCP
makes it possible to have several transactions running
simultaneously.
TCP consists of component sub-layer and the transaction sub-
layer.The component layer provides information exchange
between two layers by the means of dialogues. dialogue will
contain several components like action , response etc.The
transaction identifier gives each transaction a unique identity
which is also known as transaction identifier.
Section 6 - SS7
TCP acts as a secretary to a manager who has several engineers
reporting to it. The secretary handles all the transactions from the
manager and sends it across the appropriate engineer and also keeps
track of each transactions by having identified files for each engineers
transaction.
Section 6 - SS7
GIobaI %itIe GIobaI %itIe
Global title is the address of the Signaling Point which does not clearly
mention the destination address for routing. t is translated by SCCP to
get the destination address.e.g. the dialled digits.On an incoming
call,GMSC uses the Global title to determine the destination.
MP message entering or originating from an exchange must either be a
terminating message or a message to be routed to another exchange.
Section 6 - SS7
By analyzing the global title(GT) of the called address,the SCCP will either
route the message to another node with the help of global title routing
case (GTRC) or terminate the message in the node.
n the terminating node the message will be distributed to the correct user
with the help of the subsystem number (SSN).
Section 6 - SS7
Ora3izatio3 of Si3aIi3 3formatio3 Ora3izatio3 of Si3aIi3 3formatio3
Signal Unit : - group of bits forming a separately transferable entity
used to convey information on a signaling link.
re of variable length; maximum length : 280 bytes (including 272
signaling information bytes)
Three types of signal units, differentiated by the length indicator field
contained in each.
Section 6 - SS7
{length limitation is imposed to control the delays one message can
cause to others due to their emission time}
ill-in signal unit (SU) ; L = 0
Link status signal unit (LSSU) ; L = or 2
Message signal unit (MSU) ; L = 3 to 63
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aI U3its Si3aI U3its
MSU:
convey the signaling information between the user parts
(level 4) of the adjacent signaling points. E.g. M , CM ,
REL.
LSSU:
a signal unit which contains status information about the
signaling link.
SU :
a signal unit containing only error control and delimitation
information which is transmitted when there are no MSUs or
LSSUs to be transmitted.
This is done to allow for a consistent error monitoring so
that faulty links can be quickly detected and removed
from service even when traffic is low.
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aI U3its Si3aI U3its
CK
16
S!
n,n>=2
S!O
L!
6
!B
1
SN
7
B!B
1
BSN
7
CK
16
L!
6
!B
1
SN
7
B!B
1
BSN
7
!SU
CK
16
S
or 16
L!
6
!B
1
SN
7
B!B
1
BSN
7
LSSU
NSU
2
2
2
Section 6 - SS7
SU eIimitatio3 / Ia imitatio3 !reve3tio3 SU eIimitatio3 / Ia imitatio3 !reve3tio3
Signal Unit Delimitation :
unique pattern on the signaling data link is used to delimit a signal
unit :- 0 0.
01111110 01111110 Main part oI Message
Flag imitation Prevention :
~~ to ensure that no Ialse Ilags are produced in the
signal units, only Iive consecutive one`s are allowed inside
the signal unit. II more than Iive one`s occur consecutively,
a zero is inserted aIter the IiIth one and is removed again in
the receiving signal terminal. This is called bit stuIIing.
Section 6 - SS7
rror etectio3 rror etectio3
Error Detection :
-each signal unit has standard CCTT 6 bit cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) checksum to enable the receiving terminal to
check that all bits have been received correctly.
CK generated by transmitting SP on all fields except the lag.
Receiving SP calculates CK and compares with CK in the
signal unit.
Mismatch interpreted as error in received signal unit & error
correction procedures are invoked.
Section 6 - SS7
rror Correctio3 rror Correctio3
Two forms of error correction methods are used :
Basic method
Preventive cyclic re-transmission (PCR)
Basic Method:
re-transmission occurs only when transmitting SP is informed by
receiving SP about the signal units received in error
is a positive / negative CK re-transmission error correction system
Section 6 - SS7
or sequence control, each signaling unit is assigned forward &
backward sequence numbers and forward & backward indicator bits.
Sequence Numbering is performed independently at the two SPs
interconnecting the link.
The sequence numbers are 7 bits long, meaning that at most 27
messages can be transmitted without receiving a positive CK.
Section 6 - SS7
!ositive Ack3owIedme3t !ositive Ack3owIedme3t
SN=12S,!B=B!B=1
SN=126,!B=B!B=1
BSN=126,!B=B!B=1
SN=3S,!B=B!B=1
NSU saved in RTB
NSU saved in RTB
Both NSU deleted fm RTB
Correctly received
NSU with positive ack,SN=34
NSU,BSN remains 126
Correctly received
Section 6 - SS7
eative Ack3owIedme3t eative Ack3owIedme3t
Errored MSU is discarded and not delivered to level 3 of MTP
SP sends a negative ack in the next SU
BSN retains the SN of last correctly received MSU
BB is inverted
ll messages with SN > received BSN sent one by one by
fetching from RTB
B value inverted in all retransmitted messages
Until all messages in the RTB are retransmitted, no fresh MSUs
are sent.
Section 6 - SS7
!reve3tive CycIic Re !reve3tive CycIic Re- -tra3smissio3 tra3smissio3
Preventive Cyclic Retransmission:
Retransmission takes place for signal units whose correct reception
is not confirmed by the receiving SP
is a positive CK cyclic re-transmission forward error correction
system.
copy of the transmitted MSU is retained at the transmitting
terminal unit until a positive CK for that MSU is received.
Section 6 - SS7
Re transmission Rules :
when there are no new MSUs to be sent, all MSUs not
positively acknowledged are retransmitted cyclically.
f new signal units are available, the retransmission cycle (if
any) is interrupted and the signal units transmitted with first
priority.
Under normal conditions, with no MSUs to be transmitted or
cyclically re-transmitted, SUs are sent continuously.
Section 6 - SS7
asic Versus !CR asic Versus !CR
n both methods, only errored MSUs and LSSUs are corrected.
Errors in SUs are detected but not corrected
Both methods are designed to avoid out of sequence and duplicated
messages when error correction takes place.
PCR method is used when the propagation delay is large (satellite
transmission).
Section 6 - SS7
With large propagation delays, the basic method becomes
inappropriate because NCK system causes message delays to be
too long for the erroneous MSUs
CCTT recommendations : PCR should be used when one
way propagation delay exceeds 5ms.
Drawback of PCR : inefficient bandwidth utilization
.e. the maximum load level a link can be engineered for is
much less with PCR.
Section 6 - SS7
rror Rate Mo3itori3 rror Rate Mo3itori3
Level 2 functions detect a failure in the following circumstances:
High error rate on the signaling units.
Excessive re-alignment period.
Excessive CK delay.
Signaling terminal failure.
Reception of continuous SUs.
Two types of signaling error rate monitor is provided
signaling Unit Error Rate Monitor (SUERM).
lignment Error Rate Monitor(ERM).
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 U3it rror Rate Mo3itor Si3aIi3 U3it rror Rate Mo3itor
s used while a signaling link is n $ervice. t provides the criteria for taking a
signaling link OOS due to excessive error rate.
s based on a signaling unit error count (including SUs) , incremented &
decremented using the "leaky bucket algorithm.
Section 6 - SS7
or each errored signaling unit , the count is incremented by
one and for each 256 signaling units received (whether
errored or not), a positive count is decremented by one (a
zero count is left at zero). When the count reaches 64, an
excessive error rate indication is sent to Level 3 and the
signaling link is put OOS.
The error rate on signaling units should not exceed
64 consecutive erroneous signaling units or
erroneous signaling unit out of every 256 on an
average.
Section 6 - SS7
AIi3me3t rror Rate Mo3itor AIi3me3t rror Rate Mo3itor
s used while a signaling link is in the proving state of the initial
alignment procedure.
Provides a criteria for rejecting a signaling link for service during the
initial alignment due to an excessive error rate.
Section 6 - SS7
The lignment error rate monitor is a linear counter which is started
at zero at the start of the proving period and the count is
incremented by one for each LSSU unit received in error. proving
period is aborted if the threshold for the alignment error rate monitor
count is exceeded before the proving period timer expires.
Parameter Value
Tin 5
Tie
M 5
Section 6 - SS7
Messae abeI types (S) Messae abeI types (S)
T560-93/d06
SLC
SLS
SLS
SLS
Circuit D code
Circuit
D code
Originating
point code
Originating
point code
Originating
point code
Originating
point code
Destination
point code
Destination
point code
Destination
point code
Destination
point code
Management information
Signalling information
MTP management messages: Label type
TUP messages: Label type B
SUP messages: Label type C
SCCP messages: Label type D
Routing label
FIGURE 7/Q.700
SS No. 7 message label types
Section 6 - SS7
Messae abeI Messae abeI
CC
identity of the physical circuit that carries the call for which
the signaling information is meant.
SLS
signaling link selection is used for load sharing between
signaling links.
SLC
signaling link code identifies the signaling link connecting the
origination and destination SPs
For implementation of level 3 functions, the required fields are :
Service nformation Octet (SO)
Routing Label
Section 6 - SS7
Service 3formatio3 Octet Service 3formatio3 Octet
ncludes :-
service indicator (S- 4-bits)
sub service indicator or network indicator (N- 2-bits)
The S will determine the "User, e.g. TUP, SCCP, SUP and the N will determine which network is
concerned, e.g. international or national.
Subservice ield Codes (N)
D C B Spare
0 0 nternational network
0 Spare (for international use only)
0 National network
Reserved for national use
Section 6 - SS7
Service 3dicator Codes Service 3dicator Codes
D C B
0 0 0 0 Signaling network management messages
0 0 0 Signaling network testing and maintenance messages
0 0 0 Spare
0 0 SCCP
0 0 0 Telephone User Part
0 0 SDN User Part
0 0 Data User Part (call and circuit-related messages)
0 Data User Part(facility registration & cancellation messages)
0 0 0 Reserved for MTP Testing User Part
0 0 Broadband SDN User Part
0 0 Satellite SDN User Part
0 )
to
) Spare
Section 6 - SS7
Routi3 abeI Routi3 abeI
32 bits , consists of :
Origination Point Code - 4 bits
Destination Point Code - 4 bits
Signaling link selection - 4 bits
The N, together with 4-bit point code, allows for four
signaling networks each with up to 6,384 point codes.
SLS Originating Point Code Destination Point Code
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 Messae Ha3dIi3 Si3aIi3 Messae Ha3dIi3
Discrimination :
discrimination function compares the DPC in the routing label with
the point code of own SP
f DPC = own SP ; message meant for this SP
f DPC <> own SP ; further processing performed by routing
function
Distribution :
distribution function examines Service ndicator to deliver the
message to the desired user part
Section 6 - SS7
Routing :
routing function determines the signaling link on which the message
is to be sent
concerned with OG signaling messages
routing table is examined along with DPC in the message to
determine the OG SLS available to route the message.
Section 6 - SS7
Si3aIi3 i3k Ma3aeme3t Si3aIi3 i3k Ma3aeme3t
Controls the links connected to the SP to maintain certain minimum
capability of carrying signaling traffic under normal operation & in the
event of failures
Link activation
process of making a signaling link ready to carry signaling
traffic
Link restoration
procedure to bring a previously failed link back into service
Section 6 - SS7
Iow Co3troI Iow Co3troI
CCS 7, in common with other transport mechanisms, needs to
limit the input of data when congestion onset is detected. The
nature of CCS 7 will lead to SP/STP overload congestion being
spread through the signaling network if no action is taken. This
will result in impaired signaling performance and message loss.
n addition to signaling network congestion within a node,
congestion will also require action to prevent signaling
performance from deteriorating. There is thus a need for flow
control within the signaling system to maintain the required
signaling performance.
Section 6 - SS7
ercise ercise
". Name the two different kind of signaling types and compare the two.
"2. Name the users of the TCP.
"3. How many types of connections occur in SCCP?
"4. Out of following, which is used for monitoring the status of link MSU,
LSSU, SU
Section 6 - SS7
"5. How many consecutive s are allowed in signaling units and why?
Section 6 - SS7
ime3sio3i3 ime3sio3i3
Section 7 - Dimensioning
Objective Objective
Mapping on the air interface
Microwave planning concepts
signaling link dimensioning and load sharing
Routing strategies
Erlang B, Erlang C
Numbering plan used in mobile networks
GPRS concepts
n a traditional telephony - signaling means the passing of
information from one point to another for setting up and
supervision of telephone calls.
subscriber exchange signaling (signaling between subscriber
and the local exchange)
inter-exchange signaling (signaling between exchanges).
With the development of the CCTT Signaling System No. 7 the
capabilities have been enhanced to be able to handle non-call
related data. End user data can be transferred, as with the Short
Message Service.
Abis Mappi3 Abis Mappi3
Besides the traffic channels, the bis interface also carries the required
signaling information in 64 Kbit/s channels. One signaling channel is
normally provided for each transceiver within a BTS for controlling upto
8 subscribers per carrier frequency.
Sig TRX 2
Sig TRX
TS 0
BSC
TRX 1
TRX 2
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
0
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
0
TS rrangement on PCM Link :
Sector occupies 2TS for TCH (64 Kbps)
TS for signaling
Total number of Time slot in one PCM 32
Out of which is used as S and other for internal signaling.
TS available for carrying the information 30
Therefore total number of TRXs that can be cater on one PCM
= 30/3 = 0
Example:
ssuming that network has BTSs of 2 TRX in each sector, then max
number of BTSs that can share the PCm link is:
Sector occupy 5TS
Therefore, one BTS occupy 5TS
Hence, totoal number of BTSs are = 30/5
= 2
TS BTS 1 BTS 2
0 PCM Management InIormation
1 TRX 1
2 TRX 1
3 TRX1
4 TRX1
5 TRX 2
6 TRX 2
7 TRX 2
8 TRX 2
9 TRX 3
10 TRX 3
11 TRX 3
12 TRX 3
13 TRX 4
14 TRX 4
15 TRX 4
16 TRX 4
17 TRX 5
18 TRX 5
19 TRX 5
20 TRX 5
21 TRX 6
22 TRX 6
23 TRX 6
24 TRX 6
25 Signalling BTS1, Sector1
31 Control Ring

Microwave i3ks Microwave i3ks
Telecom Network has two main constituent
. ccess Network and
2. Connectivity which is the backbone connectivity.
Optical fiber is most popular for highcapacity routes in Network
however microwave radio used in lower capacity routes, in
difficult terrain, in private and military communication where
the advantage of flexibility, security and speed of installation
offered by radio are particularly valuable.
CeIIuIar etwork AppIicatio3 CeIIuIar etwork AppIicatio3
MSC
BSC
BTS
BTS
Microwave Hop: t is a bi-directional transmission system
containing 2 DMR one at each end of connecting elements.
The information could be on 2MB or higher interface. The
microwave frequency bands and the radio channel spacing in
these bands have been all standardized by CCR.
Some typical frequency bands are 2, 4, 6,7,8, & 4 GHz. bove
GHz rain attenuation becomes a greater problem and hence
restrict to short haul (shorter hop length). Each band is further
divided into several blocks of channels which is a pair of
frequencies, f & f' for transmission and reception.
!ropaatio3 !ropaatio3
Microwave beam passes through the part of the atmosphere, which
is in close proximity of surface of the earth. Radio waves, like
light waves are also electromagnetic waves, though of lesser
frequency, also have the properties of light waves like
attenuation, refraction, diffraction, scattering and polarization.
While designing the system and engineering link, the effect of all
these are to be taken into consideration.
The loss between the transmitting and receiving antenna with
transmission medium as vacuum is termed as ree Space Loss.
Lfs = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f
d = distance in Kms
f = frequency in Ghz
Refractio3 K Refractio3 K- -factor factor
t is the scaling factor that helps to quantify the curvature of the
radio beam
K = effective earth radius / true earth radius
True earth radius = 6370 km
The angle of curvature by refraction is denoted by the k-factor,
defined as the ratio of the effective earth radius (radius of earth
which allow the beam to draw as a straight line) to the true earth
radius.
!ath CIeara3ce !rocess !ath CIeara3ce !rocess
Microwave Link is based on LOS
Microwave Path curvature is based on Refraction (K)
Microwave Path should also have resnel Zone clearance to
avoid diffraction
resnel Zone: The area around the line of sight path which results
into a reflection of 80S (half wave length) at the receiver is
termed as irst resnel Zone. The area which results in 2 and 3
half wave lengths are Second resnel Zone.
n = 7.3 Sqrt ( ndd2/f D)
n = Radius of resnel Zone (center point at path)
d = distance from one end of path to reflection point (km)
d2 = distance from other end of path to reflection point (km)
D= d + d2
f = frequency (GHz)
n = number of resnel Zone
!ath !rofiIe !ath !rofiIe
Linear Method
Microwave beam is drawn as a straight line
The effective earth curvature height (h) is calculated for a
desired k-factor
h= (dd2) / 2.75 k
resnel Zone clearance is then calculated for the same k value
Earth Bulge = Effective earth curvature height + resnel Zone
clearance
Cou3termeasures Cou3termeasures
lat ading:
Link Overbuilding (ntenna gains, improved receiver
performance, power)
Shorten distance between sites
Path diversity
Selective ading:
Space diversity
requency diversity
Equipment Reliability:
Hot- Standby arrangement
Space iversity Space iversity
re6ue3cy iversity re6ue3cy iversity
Tx 1
Tx 2
Rx 1
Rx 2
Over Reach 3terfere3ce Over Reach 3terfere3ce
I1
I1`
I2
I2`
I1
I1`
Si3aIi3 !Ia33i3 Objective Si3aIi3 !Ia33i3 Objective
The main planning objectives are:
Reliability - disturbances in the signaling should be avoided.
Robustness - a fault in one part of the network should not affect other
parts.
Simple Network rchitecture - the structure of the network should be
easy to understand.
Short Delay Times - to cater for high quality of service.
Purpose: to dimension the correct amount of hardware to meet
the requirements.
Over dimension > inefficiency
Under dimension > congestion
nput data: - subscriber data
- network data
- GoS
- equipment limitations
Signaling Link Dimensioning
Simplicity is achieved by introducing hierarchical levels. Hierarchical
networks are flexible and allow fast expansion of the PLMN.
Hierarchical networks are also easy to operate and manage.
Major part of signaling network delay is induced in intermediate nodes and
not so much on the links (in a properly dimensioned network).
Hierarchical network structures are therefore also to be preferred from
his point of view.
efi3itio3 of %raffic
A
BHC x MHT
3600
Where: A is the traIIic expressed in Erlang (E)
BHCA Busy Hour Call Attempts
MHT is the average holding time (s)
3600 is the number oI seconds per hour
When designing the network, redundancy is of major importance. There
are cases though when separation of the connections on different
routes is not plausible. One should then at least consider hardware
redundancy.
%raffic i3k Redu3da3cy %raffic i3k Redu3da3cy
80% of the traffic saved if one link goes down
2 separated routes 3 separated routes
The redundancy Iactor becomes 1.6 and 1.2 respectively
eg 10E per link then:
80*(1010)16E
80*(101010)/216E
C7 Si3aIi3 Co3cept i3 the GSM etwork C7 Si3aIi3 Co3cept i3 the GSM etwork
Maximum signaling load per signaling link
30 % under normal conditions
60 % under overload conditions
64 kbit/s = 8000 octets/s ( octet = 8 bits)
Normal load = 0.3 x 64 = 9.2 kbit/s or
0.3 x 8000 = 2400 octets/s
Overload = 0.6 x 64 = 38.4 kbit/s or
0.6 x 8000 = 4800 octets/s
widely used dimension rule, based on No. 7 signaling link
dimensioning for plain PSTN with TUP, is to allow 30% load on
links in normal operation and 60% in failure situations.
n GSM networks 20% load in normal operation is often used. With
MP MSUs instead of TUP the same signaling volume is
generated by fewer and longer MSUs that implies a more bursty
load requiring more margin to achieve the same quality.
Si3aIi3 VoIumes Si3aIi3 VoIumes
Signaling is required not only for setting up of call connections, but also for
finding and upgrading the present location of the subscriber. Enhanced
security including both authentication and equipment identity control require
No. 7 signaling.
Estimates of the signaling generated by different events in the network can be
used to calculate the approximate signaling load.
Signaling Calculation Model:
The main input parameters are:
Traffic per subscriber
Mean Call holding Time
Percentage MT traffic
Location Updates per subscriber and hour
nter MSC handovers per call
MS attach per subscriber and hour
Number of authentication triplets fetched at a time
short messages per subscriber and hour
si3aIi3 VoIume ampIe si3aIi3 VoIume ampIe
Model Model 2
TraIIic per sub 0.030E 0.025E
Mean holding time 100s 120s
MT Percentage 33 25
Location Updates new VLR / 1.1 0.45
sub&hour
Inter MSC Ho/call 0.10 0.05
SM / sub&hour 0.5 0.1
MSC - HLR kb/s per ksub 1.55 0.65
MSC - MSC kb/s per ksub 0.35 0.15
MSC -EIR kb/s per ksub 0.20 0.10
There is a different possibilities for the operator to influence the signaling
volumes per subscriber:
Placing of MSC borders as well as L borders impact the mobility
experienced in the network. (it reduces the Location rea update
signaling)
Parameter settings in the UC for use of selective authentication
Parameter settings in the ER for ME check
C7 Routi3 Strateies C7 Routi3 Strateies
n order to meet the need for extended services, i.e. communication
with databases without speech connections, the SCCP is used.
SCCP maintains connection oriented (CO), connectionless (CL)
network services, circuit related and non-circuit related signaling.
Connection-oriented signaling: used when many messages to
transfer between two signaling points (SP) and when messages
are so long that segmenting is needed.
Connectionless signaling is used for MP. n connectionless
signaling all message signaling units contain all information
required to route each message unit to the correct destination.
Circuit related signaling is signaling related to a specific speech
or data connection
Non circuit related signaling is signaling not connected to any
speech or data connection, i.e. roaming signaling in mobile
application.
SCCP make possible routing of the message on a higher level
(Global Title Translation (GTT), SCCP rerouting), i.e. handle the
logical signaling connection, and MTP is responsible for
transporting the message through the network in a reliable
manner.
SCC! Routi3 SCC! Routi3
The SSN indicates the subsystem so the message is distributed to the
right software in the terminating node. SSN points out MP HLR, MP
VLR, MP MSC/GMSC, BSSP, MP ER, MP UC, MP SC, and
SUP.
M%! Routi3 M%! Routi3
The routing procedure as well as the load sharing between link sets and
within link sets is done using:
Network ndicator (N),
Destination Point Code,
an Originating Point Code (OPC) and
a four bit signaling Link Selection code (SLS).
N identifies a No.7 Network. DPC and OPC are the signaling Point
Code (SPC) that uniquely defines a signaling Point (SP) in the No.7
signaling network.
MTP signaling route could either be one signaling link set or load sharing
over signaling link sets.
Signaling route alternatives with different priorities can be defined
and the routing alternative with lower priority will not be set into
action until the alternative with the higher priority is totally
blocked.
Signaling routing in the GSM can be understand by the example of
the network having three HLRs in three different zones along
with STPs.
Routing principles for No. 7 signaling:
Western MSC load-share signaling to HLRs over Western STP
to East HLR and East STP to East HLR. Second choice, if both
link sets are out of order, signaling is routed over Central STP to
East HLR.
Similar is the case for other two HLRs.
HLRs are connected to all three STP. Routing of signaling
depends on destined MSC group:
signaling towards western MSCs is routed in load-share over W
E and E E. Second choice, if both link sets are out of order,
signaling is routed over C E.
signaling towards central MSCs routed in load-share over W E and C E.
Second choice, if both link sets are out of order, signaling is routed over
E Tr.
Osignaling towards eastern MSCs routed in load-share over C E and E E.
Second choice, if both link sets are out of order, signaling is routed over
C E.
Si3aIi3 oad Shari3 Si3aIi3 oad Shari3
or load sharing both between link-sets and between the links on
the link-sets the signaling Link Selection code is used. This is a
four-bit code that is set by the MTP user. Which bit to be used as
the load sharing bit for load sharing between the link sets is set
by the LSHB-parameter (Load sharing Bit) in the exchange data.
f all links get the same number of SLS codes they will all carry the
same load, i.e. the load is evenly distributed. f all the links do not
get the same number of SLS codes then the load will not be
evenly distributed.
The maximum load on the link set is limited by the signaling links carrying
most of the signaling load
C is the maximum load in normal operation for one link. or example, if we
allow 30% maximum load on each 64kb/s link and we have 8 signaling
links in a link-set. Then, assuming that we do not load share with
another link-set (i.e. four bit load share within the link-set) the capacity
of link set is 8*30%*64kb/s=53.6 Kbps.
M%! Cha3eover i3 case of Ii3k faiIure M%! Cha3eover i3 case of Ii3k faiIure
%raffic ModeIs %raffic ModeIs
Two commonly used models are Erlang B and Erlang C:
rIa3 rIa3
This is a loss model, in that blocked calls are simply lost rather than
being held in some form of queuing system.
t assumes that call arrivals follow a Poisson process, that the
number of users is much greater than the number of channels.
rom the Erlang-B table, 7 channels and a GoS of 0.02 (2%)
corresponds to = 2.9354 Erl of offered traffic.
Therefore, carried traffic = (- GoS)
= 2.9354 (- 0.02)
= 2.87669Erl
Channel Utilization: This is the ratio of carried traffic to
number of channels
Therefore,
Channel Utilization = 2.87669/7
= 0.4 or 4%
Calls that cannot be handled are put in a queue until a channel becomes
available. The queuing delay is a function of the offered packet traffic,
the maximum number of links available and the mean holding time of
each call. The Erlang C formulas are used to determine the probability
of a delay occurring, the probability of such a delay being larger than a
certain time and also the mean delay.
rIa3 C rIa3 C
Example: s compared with circuit switched traffic with a blocking
probability of 2% 7.5 Erlangs corresponds to 22 Erlang in C
table.
This suggests that there is a gain in trunking efficiency offered by
tolerating a 0 ms delay in transmission.
Mean delay depends on the mean holding time, which in turn is
proportional to the packet size. Packet size can be reduce in
order to reduce the holding time but it increase the signaling
overheads.
!rocessor oad !rocessor oad
efi3itio3s efi3itio3s
The processor load is the proportion of time that the processor executes
instructions having real time requirements. t is normally expressed in
percentage of its full capacity.
t has following components:
dle load: This component depends on the functionality and to some
extent on the size of the exchange. The idle load is not dependent on
the traffic or other external activities but varies from processor to
processor.
Continued...
Usage load: This component is caused by operation and
maintenance activities such as data dumps, commands, traffic
measurements and printout of statistics.
Traffic load: This component is used for traffic handling.
Loadability: The loadability is the upper limit for the allowed
processor load. t depends on the processor but also on the job
lengths and delay requirements.
Continued...
Load per call: This is the amount of execution time that the
processor has to spend in setting up and disconnecting a call.
Load per call is normally expressed in milliseconds (ms), but is
sometimes expressed as the number of S (assembler)
instructions necessary to fulfill the task.
Traffic peak margin: s sometimes referred to as Safety margin.
The traffic peak margin is normally 20-35% of the available traffic
load. This is needed to allow for unpredictable traffic peaks.
Capacity Capacity
%raffic capacity, (e g 2,500 Erlang), tells how many simultaneous
calls a unit can handle. One Erlang corresponds to one busy
line. f a subscriber calls 25 mErlang during busy hour, he is in
average calling 25/000 of the hour (=25*60*60/000 = 90
seconds).
Erlang can be limited by for example the group switch, available
speech trunks, transcoders etc. But this does not give any idea
about the processor loading as well as nor about non call
activities.
Continued...
CaII capacity, (e g 00,000 BHC), tells how many call attempts a
unit can handle during busy hour. This figure is a better measure
of processor capacity but still, this measure does not take into
account non-call related activities.
Subscriber capacity, (e g 60,000 subscribers), tells how many
subscribers that can be served by a unit. This figure is strongly
depending on subscriber behavior.
Continued...
Addressi3 capacity, (e g 020 TRXs), tells how many HW or SW
devices that can be connected / defined. This is also known as system
limits. Here, no considerations to real-time processing needs or amount
of traffic are made.
%raffic oad istributio3 %raffic oad istributio3
n the default traffic load distribution for a GMSC/MSC/HLR the call part
takes about 70% of the capacity of the traffic load, the location updating
part about 25%, the SMS part 3% and supplementary services
approximately 2%.
f one look into the traffic part (70% of traffic load) the actual basic load
part is 53% of the usage load, a gate way load part is 7.5%, a charging
part 5%, a handover part 3% and a part used for authentication about
%
umberi3 !Ia3 umberi3 !Ia3
The MSSDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone
subscription in the public switched telephone network numbering plan. These
are the digits dialed when calling a mobile subscriber.
n GSM 900/GSM 800, the MSSDN consists of the following:
MSSDN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code
International
PreIix
Country
Code
National
Destination Code
Subscriber
Number
0091 98 113 23448
The digits 113` identiIy the GSM 900/GSM 1800 PLMN area
code.
The digits 23448` deIine the Iive digits, which identiIy the
mobile subscriber.
NDC is allocated to each PLMN. n some countries, more than
one NDC may be required for each PLMN.
The international MSSDN number may be of variable length.The
maximum length is 5 digits, prefixes not included.
Example: Singapore PSTN subscriber is calling to an ndian
GSM PLMN subscriber
Continued...
3ter3atio3aI MobiIe Subscriber de3tity (MS) 3ter3atio3aI MobiIe Subscriber de3tity (MS)
The MS is the information which uniquely identifies a sub in a GSM
PLMN. t is used in all the signaling in the PLMN.
t will be stored in the in the Subscriber dentity Module (SM), as well as in
the HLR and in the serving VLR.
t consists of three different parts
MS = MCC + MNC + MSN
MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits)
MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits)
MSN= Mobile Station dentification Number
ll network related subscriber information is connected to the MS.
n GSM 900, the MSSDN consists of the following:
MSSDN = CC + NP + SN
CC = Country Code
NP = Number Planning rea
The NP is allocated to each GSM 900 PLMN. The length of MSSDN
depends on the structure and operating plan of each operator. The
maximum length is 5 digits, prefixes not included.
Examples:
xyz = operator code
abcde = Subscriber number
STD code = PSTN area code ( for delhi)
Call from PSTN to PLMN
Local Call 98 xyz abcde
Outside area call 0 98 xyz abcde
Call from PLMN to PSTN
Local Call 0+STD code+SN
Outside area call 0+STD code+SN
G!RS Core etwork !Ia33i3 G!RS Core etwork !Ia33i3
Circuit Vs !acket ata Circuit Vs !acket ata
Circuit Switched Service:
2G system (primarily voice and data on circuit switched air interface)
Call charging based on channel holding time.
Maximum number of users per TDM channel is 8
Suitable for constant bit rate applications
Resource allocation is done such that UL and DL are paired.
Packet Switched Service:
Several users can share the same channel.
Charges based on channel usage (actual usage of byte
transferred).
Well suited for bursty traffic.
Resource allocation done independently on UL and DL (good for
applications with asymmetrical bit rate)
Dynamic allocation of resources
Can multiplex traffic (voice, data, video).
2
Offered GPRS Traffic
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
%CH
Circuit Switched Traffic
2
4
6
8
1
12
14
%CH
GSM
capacity
6
8
1
12
14
2
4
Speech traffic Ieaves some capacity for
packet data
G!RS System feature G!RS System feature
Variable quality of service.
ndependent packet routing.
Protocol transparent (encapsulation & tunneling)
Slotted LOH for random access procedure
Provides P connectivity to mobile subscriber.
Build on existing GSM infrastructure with added nodes for supporting
packets.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Co3ceptuaI View o3 G!RS Co3ceptuaI View o3 G!RS
Shared GSM a3d G!RS
3frastructure
3ter3et
Corporate 3tra3et
3ter3et
Corporate 3tra3et
G!RS Core G!RS Core
SC SC %S %S
GSM Voice
Access
!oi3t
G!RS 3frastructure ! WorId
Air 3terface Air 3terface - - MobiIe %ermi3aI MobiIe %ermi3aI
Type C GPRS only
(or manually switched between GPRS and speech modes)
Type B GPRS and Speech (not at same time)
(Automatically switches between GPRS and speech modes)
Type A GPRS and Speech at the same time
BSC
BTS
G!RS Attach / etach G!RS Attach / etach
ttach
Performed when the MS indicates its presence to PLMN for the purpose
of using GPRS service
Carried out between MS and SGSN
MS identifies itself with its GSM identity
GPRS subscription necessary for successful attach
Detach
Performed when the MS indicates to the PLMN that it no longer be
using GPRS services
MS identifies itself with its GSM identity
System Architecture System Architecture
BTS
BTS
BTS
BSC SGSN GGSN
Data
Networks
Um
Abis
HLR
Gb Gn
Gr
Gc
Gi
SGS SGS
Responsible for delivery of packets to mobile subscribers in its
service area.
Mobility Management
Logical link management, authentication
GPRS user- related data needed by SGSN to perform routing
and transfer functionality stored in GPRS Register eg current
cell, current VLR, user profile including MS and its address in
PDN.
nterface point between core and Radio networks
cts as an interface between GPRS network and external PDNs
Mainly responsible for packet routing, transfer and mobility
management
Converts packets from SGSN into appropriate PDP format and
sends them out to corresponding PDN
PDP addresses of incoming data packets from PDN are
converted to MS of the destination user and sent to the
responsible SGSN.
Tunneling
GGS GGS
Circuit Switched traffic has priority
n each cell Circuit Switched & Packet Switched territories are defined
Territories consist of consecutive timeslots
%R 1
%R 2
CCCH TS TS TS TS TS TS TS
TS TS TS TS TS TS TS TS
Circuit
Switched
Territory
Packet
Switched
Territory
Territory border moves
Dynamically based on Circuit
Switched traffic load
efauIt
G!RS
Capacity
edicated
G!RS
Capacity
TS TS
Additio3aI
G!RS
Capacity
TS TS
G!RS a3d GSM Resource shari3
Capacity Ma3aeme3t Capacity Ma3aeme3t
Dedicated GPRS Capacity
TCHs reserved exclusively for GPRS use.
Default GPRS Capacity
TCHs always allocated to the GPRS when circuit switched load
permits.
Keeps GPRS timeslots consecutive (important for multislot
operation)
!! Co3tet Activatio3 !! Co3tet Activatio3 - - 1 1
Accessi3 the HR Accessi3 the HR
BTS BSC
SGSN
GGSN
ntranet
GPRS
Backbone
P Network
SS7
HLR
DNS
Access Point Name ReIerence to an
external packet data network the user
wants to connect to
nternet
PN=
"ntranet.Ltd.com"
.
2.
ccess
Point
1) MS sends "Activate PDP
Context Request" to SGSN
Access Point Name
PDP Type (IP)
PDP Address (empty
dynamic)
QoS & other options
2) SGSN checks against HLR
Access Point Name
Dynamic / static IP address
QoS
i3di3 the GGS i3di3 the GGS
BTS BSC
SGSN
GGSN
GPRS
Backbone
P Network
DNS
DNS Domain Name System mechanism to
map logical names to IP addresses
ntranet
.
2.
ccess
Point
1) SGSN gets the GGSN IP address
Irom DNS
APN maps to the GGSN IP
address
2) SGSN sends "Create PDP Context
Request" to GGSN
PDP Type (IP)
PDP Address (iI empty~ dynamic
address)
Access Point Name
QoS
Access !oi3t SeIectio3 Access !oi3t SeIectio3
BTS BSC
SGSN
GGSN
GPRS
Backbone
P Network
DNS
ntranet
nternet
PN="ntranet.Ltd.com"
Access Point Name reIers to the
external network the subscriber
wants to use
Physical/logical interIace in
GGSN
Access Point conIiguration in
GGSN deIines where to connect
the user
II dynamic address, allocated by
GGSN
Co3tet Activated Co3tet Activated
BTS BSC
SGSN
GGSN
GPRS
Backbone
P Network
ntranet
nternet
.
2.
1) GGSN sends "Create PDP
Context Response" back to SGSN
2) SGSN sends "Activate PDP
Context Accept" to the MS
SGSN now ready to route user
traIIic between MS and GGSN
ercise ercise
". How many PCMs are required for one BTS with 2,,2 and
other with 3,2, configuration?
"2. Calculate the free space loss for 20Km distance at 5GHz
frequency?
"3. Calculate the 2
nd
resnel Zone for total distance of 20Km at a
distance of 0Km from one end. requency used is 5GHz.
"4. What precaution has to be taken to avoid the over reach
problem in the microwave links?
Optimisatio3 Optimisatio3
Section 8 - Optimisation
Objective Objective
signaling delay in the network
Effect on the network while introducing the new releases
mpacts of subscriber behavior
TCP/P concepts
The goal of optimization is to ensure the network is operating at
optimum efficiency and within the defined quality of service
constraints. This is achieved by implementing corrective action
and procedures to rectify network problems identified though
analysis of performance management monitoring parameters.
Vendors are continually seeking ways of maximizing revenue
generation with minimum additional investment. One way of
achieving this is to identify areas where the network is not
operating at peek efficiency and making adjustments for
improvement.
Optimizatio3 is a CycIic !rocess Optimizatio3 is a CycIic !rocess
Si3aIi3 eIay Si3aIi3 eIay
The signaling network delay depends on a variety of parameters,
among others: bit error rate, signaling link propagation and
processing time, average link load, mean MSU length on link,
mean MSU length of transmitted signal, number of signaling links
in signaling path, number of STPs in signaling link path, buffering
and queuing times in STP etc.
Key parameters that are varied are mean MSU-length, mean
signaling link load, and number of STPs and signaling links in
path.
Typical values used for calculating the delay:
Bit Error Rate on link 8.3x0-4
Mean MSU lengths a) 23 oct
b) 74 oct
STP delay 20ms
Signaling link propagation 0ms
and processing
or a constant bit error rate of 8.3x0-4 and basic error correction, the
waiting times (Tw) on the outgoing side are shown in table below for
mean MSU length 23 octets and for mean MSU lengths of 74 octets.
STP Delay (TSTP): n CCTT Blue Book, a cross STP delay of 20ms is
estimated for 0.2 link load.
Propagation and Processing Time (TL): This includes transmission
time on link and processing time of message. The overall main part of TL
is the transmission time. or ground-installed links for which basic error
correction is used, TL should be less than 5ms.
Signaling Network Delay Example: Consider two cases
. the signal passes one intermediate STP before reaching its
destination
2. the signal passes two intermediate STPs before reaching its
destination
Signaling Network Delay with one intermediate STP.
The signaling link delay, SLD is derived from:
SLD = 2x(TW + TL) + TSTP
Signaling Network Delay with two intermediate STPs.
The signaling link delay, SLD is derived Irom:
SLD 3x(TW TL) 2xTSTP
t is to be mentioned that dependence between the MSU lengths and the
delay times is not necessarily linear.
mpacts O3 Capacity mpacts O3 Capacity
When introducing a new release
New releases typically mean a drop of 0-5% of system
capacity. The BSC decrease is often less than for MSC. The
reason is that new BSC releases often contain more O&M
improvements than traffical ones.
Subscriber Behavior
The call type affects the capacity required per call, e.g., the load
per call is different depending on type of call. Load per call is
defined as the execution time of a call. This is the time
necessary to execute the program code for a call in the CP
(Central Processor). By a call is meant a call setup, call release
and information sent in connection with the call.
Call attempts have the highest impact on capacity. One call setup
plus clear consumes about 25 ms execution time. SMS point-to-
point takes about 2/3 of call execution in the BSC (2/3 of 25 ms).
Most SMS/ptp are mobile terminated, and need paging as well.
Registrations take roughly /3 of call execution in the BSC. Due to
the big number of them, the total CP load from registrations is
often higher than for calls.
Network Configuration
The number of BSCs per MSC can have a major impact on the
system capacity due to the shift of intra-BSC handovers to the
inter-BSC handovers, which will increase in case of a higher
number of BSCs. n increase of the number of inter-BSC
handovers with a factor of 0 will take 7% more of the capacity.
MSC configuration with stand alone HLR will increase the
capacity of the MSC with 5% compared to a MSC with
integrated HLR (worth mention that this 5% figure has been
derived from comparing the total MSC/HLR capacity with the
maximum capacity of a MSC without HLR).
The BSC covering areas should generally be chosen so that the
boundaries as far as possible are located in areas with low
handover intensity. The reason is that high handover frequency
decreases MSC and BSC capacity. Consequently, boundaries
through city kernels and areas close to highways should, if
possible, be avoided.
The value that the periodic location update is set to affects the
capacity. The period can be set between 6 and 530 minutes in
steps of 6 minutes. The minimum period sustainable by the
system depends on the number of subscribers and their traffic
behavior.
The number of periodic location updates has a significant impact on
the MSC capacity, therefore it is advisable to set the periodic
location update timer very carefully. Most operators choose a
short period for the forced registration, caused by the fear of
loosing track of the subscribers. n case of system recovery after
a large restart the periodic location update rate will impact the
recovery time severely. Therefore the recommendation is to use
20 minutes for the timer value. t is worth mention that the
positive effect on the MSC may impact the BSC performance
negatively due to a higher number of pagings.
Number of Location reas (Ls) has impact on BSC load. f there are
many cells per area, the local page attempts will be quite heavy. f
increasing the number of Ls, the paging load will go down. On the
other hand: f high movability for mobiles, the load from location updates
will increase. When finding the optimal point, also load in MSC must be
looked into.
dding New pplications
The following table presents the CP capacity impacts on an
average node
UC (uthentication Center) -0.4%
NR (lexible Numbering) -2.5%
SC (Service Control unction) -2.0%
(Based on 0% N calls)
SS (Service Switching unction) -0%
(Based on 0% N calls)
PR (Primary Rate ccess 30B + D) -9%
(Based on 0k BHC PR traffic)
Capacity Gai3s Capacity Gai3s
ME Check on Location Update
t is possible to switch off the ME check function for location
update, which increases the capacity with 2%.
Usage of Toll Ticket
Output only those call data records that are needed, where
possible accounting should be used instead. or instance
switching off the Land to Land call data record increases the
capacity with 3.2%.
TMS Reallocation
Switching off the TMS reallocation at location update, change of L, intra-
MSC function will result in 2% more capacity.
uthentication at Location Update
Switching off authentication at location update, change of L, intra-MSC
will result in an increase of the capacity with %.
Selective ME Check
t is advisable to use the selective ME check for all access types,
which results in a gain of capacity of 4%. To be able to decrease
the system recovery time it is recommended to switch off ME
checking for the access type location update.
Selective uthentication
The usage of selective authentication for all access types is
strongly recommended from a capacity point of view. n case of
the activation of selective authentication instead of authentication
for each access, the increase of capacity is equal to 6.2%.
Co3cIusio3 Co3cIusio3
better network and cell planning will result in some cases in more
capacity, when less location updates and handovers are needed.
Moreover the number of small nodes in a network may decrease
the overall network capacity, since they may introduce more
inter-MSC handovers, more new registrations and a higher
amount of transit traffic compared to a network with several big
nodes. urthermore the split of GMSC and MSC allows a better
maintainable network and more capacity in the separate entities,
also the usage of different processors for each entity will be
possible. Stand-alone HLR will also increase the total capacity in
the network.
G!RS %C!/! Strateies G!RS %C!/! Strateies
Datagram: t is a technical term for a packet of data and composed of
many components. The most basic is:
To: 129.23.88.12
From: 13.24.87.23
Header
Data
! ataram Compo3e3ts ! ataram Compo3e3ts
59ons [and 5addng}
0ala
0s9na9on Addr0ss
8ourc0 Addr0ss
Tm0 9o L;0 0ad0r 6h0cksum Pro9oco|
|d0n91ca9on F|ags Fragm0n9a9on 11s09
'0rson |L Ty50 o1 80r;c0 To9a| L0ng9h
What's i3 a ataram What's i3 a ataram
Version: Version of P (example: Pv4, Pv6)
P Header Length: The datagram's header size in 32 bit words.
Type of Service: ndicates "priority of the packet. This is determined
by the type of data in the packet. ("oS - "uality of Service)
Total length: Size of the P packet (in bytes).
dentification: n integer number identifying the datagram.
lags: 3-bit field of which the low-order 2 bits control
fragmentation. One bit specifies whether the packet can be
fragmented; the second bit specifies whether the packet is the
last fragment in a series of fragmented packets.
ragmentation Offset: sequence number for the bytes in
this packet when reassembling.
Time-to-live: counter that discards the datagram when it
reaches a limited. This prevents the packet from looping
endlessly on the network.
Protocol: ndicates which upper-layer protocol receives
incoming packets after P processing is complete.
Header Checksum: Helps ensure P header integrity.
Source ddress: Specifies the sending node.
Destination ddress: Specifies the receiving node.
Options: llows P to support various options, such as security.
Data: nformation payload.
TCP/IP is the Packet Data
technology used by the Internet.
GPRS will also be using the
TCP/IP standard.
Prvs|ca|
L|r|
NelWo(|
T(arspo(l
T
C
P
/
l
P

Z
-
L
a
v
e
(

3
l
a
c
|

|
0
3
l

R
e
l
e
(
e
r
c
e

V
o
d
e
|
)
T6P
F-0r ca-|0 Hcrowa;0 |nk
|P
N09work |n90r1ac0 6ard
www 0ma| da9a s0r;c0s
3ess|or
P(eserlal|or
App||cal|or
%C! Characteristics %C! Characteristics
Concerned only with the origin
and destination on the network.
Adapts to congestion
Provides virtual connection
! Addressi3 ! Addressi3
or example:
15.215.17.9 (Octets 0-255)
n binary form, it looks like:
0000.00.000000.000000
"P number is like an address
n P address consists of two parts
dentifies the network
dentifies the node or host
These two parts specifies the cIass where the node belongs..
Address CIasses Address CIasses
There are 5 different address classes.
The first byte of the first octet determines the class of the address.
Class addresses start with 0.
Class B addresses start with 0.
Class C addresses start with 0.
Class D addresses start with 0.
Class E addresses start with
5 CIasses of ! Address 5 CIasses of ! Address
125
31
63
15
15
"uantity of
Domains
(Networks)
in each
Class
Class A: 1-126
Class B: 128-191
Class C: 192-223
127: Reserved (loopback)
i3di3 a3 !'s etwork Address i3di3 a3 !'s etwork Address
When a node receives a packet, it needs to determine the Network
ddress of the network where the destination node belongs.
This is done by using the network subnet mask.
Subtracting the subnet mask to an P address results in the
identification of the network and node sections of an the P address
10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001 150.215.017.009
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000
10010110.11010111.00000000.00000000 150.215.000.000
%ra3smissio3 Methods %ra3smissio3 Methods
Transmission is the supporting layer under TCP/P.
Types of transmission
rame Relay
TM (synchronous Transfer Mode)
A%M A%M
synchronous Transfer Mode - high speed, low delay, multiplexing and
switching technology that can support any type of traffic including voice,
data, and video applications. TM is ideally suited to applications that
cannot tolerate time delay, as well as for transporting frame relay and P
traffic that are characterized as "bursty.
Other !acket Other !acket- -ased etworks ased etworks
X.25 --- popular standard for packet-switching networks.
CLNP --- (Connection-Less Network Protocol) derived from P.

GSM Architecture

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GSM Architecture Overview GSM Architecture Overview

Section 1 - GSM Architecture Overview

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