Two Phase Flow, Rheology

and Powder Flow

Chapters 6, 9 & 10 in Fundamentals
Professor Richard Holdich
R.G.Holdich@Lboro.ac.uk
Course details:
Particle Technology,
module code: CGB019 and CGB919,
2
nd
year of study.
Watch this lecture at www.vimeo.com
Also visit;
http://www.midlandit.co.uk/particletechnology.htm
for further resources.

Two Phase Flow, Rheology
and Powder Flow
Rheology Section 6.7
Homogeneous systems; Newtonian and non-
Newtonian, laminar/turbulent
Homogeneous but with slip
pneumatic conveying - dilute phase
Heterogeneous systems
pneumatic conveying - dense phase
hydraulic conveying
Powder flow
Flow of dispersions
Rheograms
Non-time dependent

r
v
R
d
d
) ( =
n
r
v
k R
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
d
) (
Newtonian:
Power law:
Rheograms
Time dependent

Apparent viscosity
Is the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid that
flows under the same conditions of shear
rate and stress as the non-Newtonian
fluid.
R (Pa)
dv/dr (s
-1
)
Apparent
viscosity
Apparent viscosity
In order to use Newtonian flow equations
we really need apparent viscosity for pipe
flow - from the flow characteristic, etc.
In order to predict flow rate and pressure
drop use simpler approach - appropriate
to power law fluids.
n
r
v
k R
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
d
) (
Force balance
on a wall gives:
L
P a
R
w
2
A
=
Wilkinsons equation
Combine the power law viscosity equation
with the shear stress on the wall - much
like the derivation of Hagens equation
and integrate to give:
n
Lk
P a
n
a n
Q
/ 1
3
2 1 3
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
=
t
Laminar flow of non-Newtonian power law fluids and
suspensions.
Turbulent flow
Generalised expression based on a friction
factor:
) (Re, f
2
2
n
v
R f
= =

For Newtonian fluids:

3 . 0
2
Re ln 5 . 2
2
2 / 1 2 / 1
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

f f
Turbulent flow
Dodge and Metzner - turbulent flow
power law fluid:
( ) ( )
2 . 1
) 2 / 1 (
75 . 0
2 / 1
4 . 0
Re* ln
4
n
f
n
f
n
=

Turbulent flow
Need a Reynolds number that reduces to
Newtonian equation when n=1, and the
turbulent friction expression should
reduce to Wilkinsons equation given
f=16/Re* - i.e. for laminar flow.
n
n n
n
n k
d v
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

2 6
8
* Re
2

Turbulent flow
The Generalised Reynolds number -
threshold value of 2000 for laminar to
turbulent flow.
n
n n
n
n k
d v
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

2 6
8
* Re
2

Turbulent flow - Q from

known pressure drop
Solution to turbulent equation - note that
f occurs on both sides of equation:
estimate Q from laminar equation,
calculate v and Re,
calculate f from wall shear and friction factor
equations, then square root of f,
calculate RHS of D&M correlation, and
check agreement, if doesnt then . the
flow rate - iterate until it agrees.
Turbulent flow - Q from
known pressure drop
Friction factor equation:
2
2 v
R f
w

=
Wall shear equation:
L
P a
R
w
2
A
=
Summary for suspensions
For Newtonian:
Use Krieger for viscosity f(C) and use mean
suspension density, then
Treat as homogeneous fluid (i.e. CGA001)
For non-Newtonian
Wilkinsons equation for LAMINAR
Dodge & Metzner for TURBULENT
Pneumatic conveying
Distinction between homogeneous (+slip)
and heterogeneous:
Pneumatic conveying
Pneumatic conveying
Positive pressure:
Pneumatic conveying
Negative pressure:
Pneumatic conveying
Mixed:
Pressure drops in
pneumatic conveying
acceleration of the gas - Bernoulli
acceleration of the solids - Bernoulli
friction of gas on pipe wall - friction factor
friction of solids on pipe wall - friction factor
static head of gas - Bernoulli
static head of solids - Bernoulli
additional drop due to bends
See Fundamentals Problem 9.6
Saltation velocity
Comes from Rizk correlation:
) 1 /( 1
) 2 2 / ( 2 /
10 4
+

=
b
b b a
s
salt
D g M
U
t
Dimensional constants in SI units
96 . 1 1440 + = x a
5 . 2 1100 + = x b
M
s
is mass flow rate (kg/s) and D is pipe diameter (m).
Slip velocity (solid-gas)
Solids will slip in the gas flow:
) 0638 . 0 1 (
5 . 0
3 . 0
s o s
x U v =
Dimensional constants in SI units, empirical
equation relating solid velocity to superficial
gas velocity.
Dense phase design
Difficult!
Dense phase design:
http://www.cheresources.com/pnuconvey.shtml
Hydraulic transport
Firstly, identify occurrence of boundary
between homogeneous and heterogeneous
transport.
4 / 1 2 / 1
) ( 9 . 11 x D U v
t t
=
Empirical correlation due to Kim et al, 1986, Int.
Chem. Eng., p 731.
Hydraulic transport
Secondly, use homogeneous non-
Newtonian (or Newtonian) transport
equations - if appropriate.
If heterogeneous, correlation due to
Durand (1953) but much better to
empirically investigate own materials.
Powder Flow
Powder flow issues
Hopper failure
Explosion
Powder flood
Hopper discharge
Mass flow
Core flow
Wall and powder pressure - FRICTION
Testing
Powder Flow & Storage
Definitions:
Hopper:
Conical section, bottom
Bin
Cylindrical section, top
Silo
Used for both
Interchangeable in use
Powder Flow Disasters
Powder flood
Silo failure
Images removed from copyright reasons.
For a suitable example please see
http://www.jenike.com/Solutions/silofail.
html
Image created by R J Leask found at
http://picasaweb.google.com/rjleask
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Explosion
Powder Flow Disasters
Image removed from copyright reasons.
For a suitable example please see
http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/lsps07_int_expldust/
Flow Patterns
MASS FLOW: first in first out
CORE FLOW: first in last out
Comparison of flow
patterns
Mass flow Core flow
Flow is uniform and Erratic flow which can
well controlled cause powder to aerate
and flood (avalanche)
No dead (static) regions Static zones at sides
- no perishable spoilage - may empty at the end
Channelling and bridging Piping may occur
should be absent
Less segregation Particles roll in discharge
Tall and thin May have higher capacity
for capital cost
High stress where Arrangement may
direction changes relieve wall stresses
Angle of Repose
For a FREE FLOWING powder the hopper angle
needs to be greater than the angle of repose for
flow to occur. This is typically 30
o
BUT a different
approach is required for COHESIVE powders.
Angle of repose is difficult to measure - best to
pour powder into an upside down glass funnel
and carefully remove to leave heap in place.
Bulk Density
Is the combined density of the powder and
the void space. Remembering the definition
of porosity:
Porosity = c = void volume/total volume
Hence the bulk density will be:

the above densities are, in order: bulk, solid
& fluid. If the fluid is air the furthest right
term can be ignored.
c c + =
s b
) 1 (
Pressure transmission and
powder discharge
Unlike fluids there isn't a linear increase in
pressure with height - for all heights. In fact,
the pressure stabilises after a few metres and
the rate of discharge from a hopper will,
therefore, be remarkably constant. For free
flowing powders the empirical equation:


where D is the opening diameter. Note that this
equation does not include powder height.
o
t
tan 2
4
5
g D M
b
=
Pressure transmission
Janssens analysis

where P
vo
is the pressure at z=0, called the
'surcharge' or uniform stress applied at the top of the
powder. For P
vo
=0 and at small values of z:
as exp(-Az) ~ 1 - Az for low z

Thus, - a similar result to that of liquids BUT only for
small values of z. At large values of z:
as the exponential term disappears.

i.e. pressure asymptotes to the above uniform value.
| | ) / 4 exp( ) / 4 exp( 1
4
d kz P d kz
k
gd
P
w vo w
w
b
v

+ =
z
d
k
k
gd
P
w
w
b
v

4
4
=
k
gd
P
w
b
v

4
=
Importance of Janssens
work

Stress is not transmitted in
a similar way to hydraulic
head, and
Wall friction has a very
significant influence on the
internal powder stresses.
Hopper design
Mass flow discharge is based
upon two factors:
the hopper angle steep enough
and the discharge opening wide
enough to provide the flow.
The Powder Flow Function (PFF or
sometimes called the Material Flow
Function), characterises the ease, or
otherwise, of powder transport and
storage.
Stable Arch Formation
Thus the minimum hopper
opening diameter needs to
be
g
H f
B
b
c

u) (
=
The main stage is to identify the
unconfined yield stress for a powder
inside a hopper, and to know more
about the functional relation H(u).
Mohrs circle and principal
planes

t
o
a

o

t
a


The maximum principal plane stress for the circle formed by
conditions of o
a
and t
a
is given by the Mohr's circle drawn
through those points and is read off at the t=0 axis.
The unconfined yield stress is the stress (Pa) given by the
Mohr's circle that goes through the origin AND is a tangent to
the yield locus. It is the maximum principal plane stress for
this circle.
Material or Powder Flow
Function
U
n
c
o
n
f
i
n
e
d

y
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
s
s

Maximum principal stress

PFF
Obtained from a series of
yield locii giving the
maximum principal
stress and unconfined
yield stress; one data
point from each yield
locus.
Jenike shear cell
Two rings are used. The powder in
the rings has a consolidating
(normal) load applied. This load is
removed and a lower load used,
together with a shear stress
applied via the bracket on the
side of the top ring.
When the shear stress is sufficient the top ring will
slide over the bottom, and the powder has
sheared. This gives one value for shear and
consolidating stress, that may be plotted on a
Mohr circle.
Useful sites
Description of Jenike and other techniques for yield locus
determination then how to use the data for hopper design.
http://members.aol.com/SchulzeDie/grdle1.html
Also, try the freeware program spannung.exe
A well known name and company with many useful resources:
http://www.jenike.com
On-line magazine for powder and bulk handling:
http://www.powderandbulk.com/
Highly recommended article on different flow types:
http://www.erpt.org/992Q/bate-00.htm
and more generally on this subject:
http://www.erpt.org/technoar/powdmech.htm
http://www.erpt.org/technoar/powddyna.htm







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