Lecture 2

Cellular Systems:
An Introduction
by: Reynold Cheng

This lecture is based on the lecture slides of Prof. Victor Leung (with his permission), the textbook “W.
Stallings, Wireless Communications and Networks, Prentice Hall, 2001” and the slides (prepared by
Tom Fronckowiak) and figures provided at the Web site of the textbook.
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

2
Cellular System Overview

Cell A

Mobile
station

Cell B

Cell C
Mobile
station3
Elements of Cellular Systems
 Base Station (BS) – includes antenna(s) and a controller
 Cell – area covered by a BS
 Mobile station (MS) – subscriber terminals communicating
with BS by wireless means (mobile terminal)
 Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO) –
connects calls between mobile units and the public
switched telephone network (PSTN)
 Two types of channels available between MS and BS:
 Control channels – used to exchange information
having to do with setting up and maintaining calls
 Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection
between users

4
First Generation (1G) Analog
Cellular Systems
Type AMPS ETACS NTT
Region America Europe Japan

Multiple access FDMA FDMA FDMA

Duplexing FDD FDD FDD

Forward band 869 - 894 MHz 935 – 960 MHz 870 – 885 MHz

Reverse band 824 – 849 MHz 890 – 915 MHz 925 – 940 MHz

Channel spacing 30 KHz 25 KHz 25 KHz

No. of channels 831 1000 600

5
Basic Concepts of Cellular Systems
 RF spectrum is a valuable and scarce commodity
 RF signals attenuate over distance
 Cellular network divides coverage area into cells, each
served by its own base station transceiver and antenna
 Low(er) power transmitters used by BSs; transmission
range determines cell boundary
 RF spectrum divided into distinct groups of channels
 Adjacent cells are (usually) assigned different channel
groups to avoid interference
 Cells separated by a sufficiently large distance to avoid
mutual interference can be assigned the same channel
group ⇒ frequency reuse among co-channel cells
6
Frequency Reuse Example 1
 Suppose we have
spectrum for 100 voice
channels
 Scenario 1: a high power
base station covering
entire area – system
capacity = 100 channels
 Scenario 2: divide
spectrum into 4 groups of
25 channels each; cells
(1, 7), (2, 4), (3, 5), 6 are
assigned distinct channel
groups – system capacity
= 175 channels
7
 Frequency Reuse Factor

Frequency reuse factor N = no. of distinct channel groups = maximum cluster size

8
1G System Capacity Evaluation
 Frequency reuse factor N = no. of distinct channel
groups = maximum cluster size
 Let
 W = available spectrum
 B = bandwidth needed per voice connection
 M = number of cells covering service area
 System capacity in terms of number of simultaneous
connections (users) is given by
W M
n = ( )( )
B N
 System capacity can be increased by reducing B, N or
increasing W, M
9
Frequency Reuse Example 2
 Suppose W = 25 MHz and B = 25 KHz/voice channel
 W/B = 1000 voice channels can be supported over the
spectrum
 Scenario 1: a high power base station covering entire area
(M = N = 1) ⇒ system capacity n = 1000 users
 Scenario 2:
 Coverage area divided into M = 20 cells with reuse factor N = 4
 Each cluster accommodate 1000 active users
 5 clusters in coverage area ⇒ system capacity n = 5000 users
 Scenario 3:
 M = 100 cells, N = 4 ⇒ system capacity n = 25000 users
 Scenario 4:
 M = 100 cells, N = 1 ⇒ system capacity n = 100000 users
10
Cellular Geometries

11
Cellular Topology
 Cell coverage depends on transmit power and antenna
elevation ⇒ highly irregular in practice
 For planning and evaluations purposes, it is common to
assume regularly spaced hexagonal cells with BS located
at the centre of each cell ⇒ equidistance between BSs
 Define R = cell radius, d = distance between adjacent BSs
= R√3, D = minimum distance between co-channel cells
(those using the same frequency group)
 N = (D/d)2
 For integer N , N = i2 + j2 + ij, i, j = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
 Possible values of N: 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, …

12
Examples of Hexagonal Cellular
Topology

13
 Approaches to Increase Capacity
 Adding new channel – any available channels can be added
 Frequency borrowing – frequencies are borrowed from adjacent cells by
congested cells (or assign frequencies to cells dynamically)
 Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage are split into smaller ones
 Cell sectoring – cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each
with their own set of channels
 Microcells – decrease the cell size by moving antennas lower places (e.g. lamp
posts)
 useful in congested streets, inside public buildings, etc.

14
 Examples
 A system of 32 cells with a radius r of
1.6km
 A total of 336 frequencies
 N=7
Area covered = 32 × 1.5r 3 = 213km
2 2

 No. of channels per cell = 336/7 = 48
 Total concurrent calls = 48×32 =1536
 How about a system of 128 cells with r =
0.8km? (classwork)
Area = 128 × 1.5(0.8) 3 = 213km
2 2

No. of channels / cell = 336 /7 = 48

Total concurrent calls = 48 x 128 = 6144

15
 Second Generation (2G) Digital
Cellular Systems
Type IS-54 IS-95 GSM PDC
Region America America Europe Japan

Multiple access TDMA/FDD CDMA/FDD TDMA/FDD TDMA/FDD

/Duplexing
Modulation π/4 DQPSK QPSK/OQPSK GMSK π/4 DQPSK

Forward Band 869 - 894 MHz 869 - 894 MHz 935 – 960 MHz 810 – 826 MHz

Reverse Band 824 – 849 MHz 824 – 849 MHz 890 – 915 MHz 940 – 956 MHz

Channel Spacing 30 KHz 1.25 MHz 200 KHz 25 KHz

Data/chip Rate 48.6 Kbps 1.2288 Mcps 270.833 Kbps 42 Kbps

Codec Rate Kbps 7.95 1.2/2.4/4.8/9.6 13.4 6.7

Users/channel 3 Up to 55 8 3
16
Differences Between 1G and 2G
Cellular Systems
 Traffic channels – 1G systems use analog FM
modulation; 2G systems use low bit-rate voice
coding and digital transmission
 Encryption – all 2G systems provide encryption to
prevent eavesdropping
 Error detection and correction – 2G digital traffic
channels incorporate FEC for error detection and
correction, giving higher power and bandwidth
efficiency
 Channel access – 2G systems allow each
frequency channel to be shared by a number of
users, using TDMA or CDMA techniques 17
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

18
Power Control
 Design issues making it desirable to include dynamic
power control in a cellular system
 Received power must be sufficiently above the background
noise for effective communication
 Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from
the mobile
 Reduce co-channel interference, alleviate health concerns, save
battery power
 In SS systems using CDMA, it’s desirable to equalize the
received power level from all mobile units at the BS

19
Open-Loop Periodic pilot

Power Control signal

 Depends solely on mobile unit

 No feedback from BS
 Assume forward and reverse
signals highly correlated
 Not as accurate as closed-loop,
but can react quicker to
fluctuations in signal strength

20
Closed-Loop Power
Control

 Adjusts signal strength in

reverse channel based on
metric of performance
 BS makes power
adjustment decision and
communicates to mobile on
control channel
21
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

22
Anatomy of a Mobile Call –
Outgoing Call

• Uses control channels

• Call blocked if free traffic channel not available

23
Anatomy of a Mobile Call –
Incoming Call

• Uses control channels

• Call blocked if free traffic channel not available
24
 Anatomy of a Mobile Call –
Call Maintenance

• Uses control channels

Uses assigned traffic channel • Traffic channel in old cell
released
• Traffic channel assigned in new
cell
Final step for call completion – assigned traffic channel
• Call dropped if no free traffic 25
released
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

26
Traffic Engineering
 Based on expected level of traffic, determine number of
traffic channels needed in a cell to meet quality of service
(grade of service) objectives:
 Call blocking probability PB
 Call dropping probability PD
 Assume Poisson arrivals for new calls with rate λn and
handoff calls with rate λh in a given cell
 Assume negative exponentially distributed channel
holding time with mean value τ for MS in the given cell
 Traffic intensity in cell is ρ = (λn + λh) τ (Erlangs)
 Given S traffic channels and no distinction of new and
handoff calls, B = PB = PD given by Erlang B formula for
blocked calls cleared service discipline 27
Erlang B Function
Blocking/dropping
probability

ρ S / S!
B=
∑ k = 0 / k!)
S
0.002 ( ρ k

3.43 Traffic intensity

10.07 Traffic Intensity (Erlang) About 50
4.46 About 55 28
Numerical Example
 Suppose that we have an AMPS cell with 20 traffic channels
 Our grade of service objective is 0.01, i.e., B ≤ 0.01
 From Erlang B function, need to limit traffic intensity to
approximately ρ ≤ 12.5
 Assume average channel holding time τ = 100 sec
 Total arrival rate of new and handoff calls should be limited to
(λn + λh) ≤ 0.125 calls/sec = 7.5 calls/min
 Further assume that 80% of arrivals are new calls
 New call arrival rate should be limited to 6 calls/min (0.8x7.5)
 Assume idle users make new calls at the rate of 1 call/hr (1/60
call per minute)
 Max. no. of users the cell can accommodate = 360 (6/(1/60))

29
Comments
 A system with more channels is more efficient than one
with fewer.
 E.g. with P = 0.002
 Two cells, each with 10 channels, can handle a total of 6.86
erlangs (i.e., 3.43+3.43)
 One cell with 20 channels can handle 10.07 erlangs
 A system with more channels is more susceptible to
reduction of P
 For S = 10, 30% increase in traffic reduces the grade of
service from 0.002 to 0.01
 For S = 70, 10% increase in traffic would reduce the grade of
service from 0.002 to 0.01

30
Cellular Call Admission Problem
 Dropping of an ongoing call is usually considered much
more objectionable than blocking of a new call
 It is desirable to give handoff calls a better service than
new calls; e.g., PB = 0.1 and PD = 0.01
 Approaches:
 Guard channels for handoff calls – L guard channels
mean that a new call is blocked if L channels or less are
free while a handoff call is blocked if no channel is free
 Use a different service discipline, e.g., blocked calls
cleared for new calls and blocked calls queued for
handoff calls

31
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

32
Type of Multiple Access
 Orthogonal multiple access
 Different transmitters do not interfere with each other
 Simultaneous conversations between many transmitter-receiver
pairs
 Multiple access with contentions
 Signals from multiple transmitters may overlap and interfere with
each others, and may contend for a common receiver ⇒ collision
 Multiple access protocol needed to arbitrate access and minimize
or recover from collisions
 Two models:
 Collision prevents successful reception at (any) receiver due to
destructive interference
 Capture effect - one of several contending signals is captured by the
receiver, based on power differential, time of arrival, random
decision
33
Orthogonal Multiple Access
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Frequency band divided into non-overlapping frequency
channels, each assigned to one transmitter / receiver pair
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Entire frequency band used for one frequency channel, divided
into non-overlapping and repetitive time segments, each assigned
to one transmitter / receiver pair
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Entire frequency band used for one frequency channel
 Different transmitter / receiver pairs share the channel by spread-
spectrum communications using different codes
 Hybrid techniques
 TDMA/FDMA
 CDMA/FDMA
34
Duplexing Methods
 Duplexing refers to the way in which forward and reverse
communication channels are derived for two-way
communications, usually in a centralized network
 Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
 Forward and reverse channels obtained from different frequency
bands
 Characteristics of forward and reverse channel may be different
 Can be used with any accessing technique, e.g., FDD/FDMA,
FDD/TDMA, FDD/CDMA
 Widely use in cellular systems
 Time division duplexing (TDD)
 Forward and reverse channels take turn to use the same frequency
band (ping-pong method)
 Forward and reverse channels have same characteristics
35
Multiple Access Protocols
 Packet-based and allow statistical multiplexing
 Contention-based protocols
 Random access – terminals access channel at will
 Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) – terminals access
channel only if the channel is sensed idle
 Collisions recovered by
 Random retransmissions; e.g., binary exponential backoff
 Collision resolution techniques
 Reservation protocols
 Reservation phase for terminals to send request or exchange
state information
 Data transmitted in an orthogonal channel without
interference from other terminals
36
Pure Aloha Protocol
 The grandmother of all random access protocols
 Stations access channel at will and recover collisions
 Assume stations send data frames of constant length F
 Each frame has a vulnerable period of 2F about its start
time when start of frame transmissions by other stations
cause a collision with this frame
 Assume Poisson arrival and Poisson channel traffic (new
arrivals plus retransmissions) with normalized rate G,
then normalized channel throughput
S = Ge-2G
 Maximum throughput S = 1/(2e) = 18.4% at G = 0.5
 Unstable in the long run for infinite station population
37
Slotted Aloha Protocol
 Channel time divided into slots of length F
 Stations access channel at beginning of slots
 Frame transmission occupies entire slot
 Frame wiped out by collision if one or more other stations
also access the same slot, recovered by delaying
retransmission by a randomly chosen number of slots
 Assume Poisson arrival and Poisson channel traffic (new
arrivals plus retransmissions) with normalized rate G, then
normalized channel throughput
S = Ge-G
 Maximum throughput S = 1/e = 36.8% at G = 1
 Unstable in the long run for infinite station population
38
Carrier Sensed Multiple Access
 In wireless networks where packet transmission time is
long relative to propagation delay, channel state (i.e., idle
or busy) information is available to terminals
 Terminals should transmit only if channel is sensed idle
⇒ carrier sensed multiple access (CSMA)
 Persistency of CSMA protocols dictates action taken
when channel sensed busy
 1-persistent – station keep sensing channel and transmit right
away when channel becomes idle
 p-persistent – keep sensing with probability p, defer to some
later time (backoff) with probability 1 - p
 Non-persistent – station backlogged and access process deferred
(backoff) to some later time

39
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

40
Mobility Management Functions
 Mobility management necessitated by mobility of
users/MSs over areas covered by different radio cells
 Handoff management – maintenance of a connection
through a cellular network during a call
 Also referred to as handover
 Handoff decision process
 Dissociation/Re-association process
 Location management – ability to identify the cell in
which a MS is located, for call delivery to the user
 Location update process
 Paging process
 Roaming
41
Basic Steps of Handoff Procedure
(2) Dissociation/Re-
association

(1) Handoff initiation

42
Elements of Handoff Procedure
 Handoff control – where is the handoff decision made and
the handoff operation controlled?
 Handoff decision algorithm – conditions that trigger the
decision to initiate handoff process
 Dissociation – MS is dissociated with old BS; traffic channel
assigned to MS in old BS is released
 Re-association – MS is associated with new BS; traffic
channel assigned to MS in new BS to support ongoing call
 Channel allocation algorithms – priority treatment of re-
association for handoff calls?
 Call rerouting – needed if old and new BSs served by
different MSC or MTSO
 Performance metrics – handoff call blocking (dropping)
probability, handoff delay
43
Handoff Decision Algorithms
 Traditional algorithms based on received signal
strength (RSS) or received signal power P at current
and adjacent cells.
 The BS averages the signal over a moving window
of time to remove rapid flucutations:
 RSS: initiate handoff to BSnew if Pnew > Pold

 RSS with threshold (PT): choose BSnew if Pnew >

Pold and Pold < PT
 RSS with hysteresis (PH): choose BSnew if Pnew >
Pold+PH

44
The Hysteresis Mechanism

•Avoid Ping-Pong Effect

•Handoff unnecessary if BS A still has sufficient signal strength
45
Handoff Decision Algorithms
 RSS with threshold (PT) and hysteresis (PH): choose
BSnew if Pnew > Pold+PH and Pold < PT
 Add a Dwell Timer to the above algorithms: start
timer when above condition is met; initiate handoff if
condition persists when timer expires
 Alternative algorithms based on SIR, BER, block error rate
(BLER), symbol error rate, using fuzzy logic, etc.
 Complicated by power control issues

46
Examples of Handoff Decision
Algorithms

47
Types of Handoff Control
 Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
 Handoff is initiated by the network, i.e., MSC, BSC, etc.
 Network entity makes RSS measurements at MS’s current BS and
adjacent BSs
 e.g., AMPS
 Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)
 Handoff is initiated by MS based on its measurement of RSS from
current and adjacent BSs
 e.g., 802.11 WLAN
 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
 MS measures RSS from current and adjacent BSs and reports results
to network
 Network entity make handoff decision based on these measurements
 e.g., GSM, IS-95
48
Types of Handoff Procedures
 Hard handoff
 MS dissociates with old BS before re-associating with new BS; i.e.,
“break before make”
 Momentary call disruption during handoff
 e.g., AMPS
 Seamless handoff
 MS associates with new BS before dissociating with old BS, i.e.,
“make before break”
 Enables MS to instantaneously switch from old to new connection
without call disruption
 Soft handoff
 MS is simultaneously associated with multiple BSs with active traffic
channels during soft handoff
 Facilitate diversity combining of signals
 e.g., IS-95
 Reference: http://home.san.rr.com/denbeste/soft.html

49
Impact of Handoff on Network
Infrastructure
 Intra-BSS handoff
 Handoff between different channels in the same cell, e.g., due to
excessive interference in the original traffic channel
 Handoff between different sectors or zones in the same cell
 MSC is not involved if BSS has processing capability as in GSM
 Intra-MSC handoff
 Handoff between cells connected to the same MSC via different BSSs
 Dissociation/Re-association involves traffic channels not only over air
interface, but also over links between MSC and BSSs, all under
coordination of the MSC
 Inter-MSC handoff
 Handoff between cells connected to different MSCs
 Dissociation/Re-association involves traffic channels in different cells,
over links between different MSCs and BSSs, and link between the
MSCs or a common switch connecting the two MSCs
 Requires the highest degree of coordination in network infrastructure 50
An Intra-MSC Hard NCHO
1. Handoff from old to new BS initiated by MSC
2. MSC assigns a free traffic channel to MS via new BS; MS
dissociates with old BS and re-associates with new BS
3. MS takes the new path and signals the MSC
4. MSC switches call over to the new traffic channel and
releases the old channel to BS

51
An Inter-MSC Hard NCHO
 Detecting a drop in RSS, MSC A requests MSC B to find suitable new
BS; MSC B replies with identity of new BS2
 MSC A requests MSC B to set up traffic channel at BS2; MSC B
acknowledges success to MSC A to initiate handoff
 MSC A establishes traffic channel over trunk connecting to MSC B
 MSC A signals MS to handoff to BS2 by dissociating from traffic
channel at BS1 and re-associating with new traffic channel at BS2

52
Lesson Objectives
 Cellular Network Topology
 Power Control
 Making a Mobile Call
 Traffic Modeling
 Multiple Call Access Protocols
 Handoff Management
 Location Database Management

53
Location Management
 Objective: to track the location of MS for call delivery
 Location registration (update):
 MS authentication
 Database update
 Call delivery:
 Database query
 Paging MS
 Minimization of database update/query cost
 Trade-off between location update cost and call delivery cost:
to update or not to update (when the MS enters a new cell), that
is the question
 Roaming support: redirection call from home network to visited
network
 http://www.comsoc.org/~ci/private/1996/sept/akyildiz.html
54
Network Architectural Model for
Location Management
HLR

VLR MSC VLR MSC

Cells
Location
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2
55
HLR and VLR Databases
 HLR: Home Location Register database
stores permanent and temporary
information (e.g., which VLR stores the
user location) about each of its subscribers
 VLR: Visitor Location Register database
stores temporary information e.g., the
physical location of the subscriber (i.e.,
which cell the user is in) in the location area

56
Registration Scenario
HLR
4
5 3

VLR MSC VLR MSC

2
Cells
Location
1
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2

57
Registration Procedure
1. MS enters new LA and sends location update message to
BS
2. Message forwarded to MSC which launches registration
query to VLR
3. If MS is known to VLR, VLR updates new location and
registration is complete; else VLR determines location of
MS’ HLR from the mobile identification number and sends
location registration message to HLR
4. HLR authenticates the MS, updates identity of current VLR
in the database, and acknowledges the location registration
to the VLR; all or part of user profile may be forwarded to
new VLR
5. HLR sends registration cancellation to old VLR, which
deletes the MS’ record and acknowledges the cancellation
58
Call Delivery Scenario
1
4
HLR
2
Calling
Switch

5
3
(SSP)

VLR MSC VLR MSC

6
7
Cells
Location 7
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2
59
Call Delivery Procedure
1. Call for MS arrives at MS’ home network
2. HLR identifies VLR currently serving MS and sends route
request message to VLR, which relays the message to the
MSC serving the MS
3. MSC allocates temporary local directory number (TLDN)
to MS and informs the HLR
4. HLR forwards this information to the calling switch (SSP)
5. Calling SSP then sets up a connection to the called MSC
via SS7 signaling
6. MSC pages MS via all the cells in the LA in which the MS
is currently located to alert MS about incoming call
7. MS replies via serving BS; MSC allocates traffic channel in
cell where MS is located to complete call 60
Database Optimization
 HLR and VLR are potentially far apart, resulting in
expensive signaling cost for frequent location updates
 Techniques to minimize HLR lookup for call delivery
 Per user location caching in SS7 network
 User profile replication at local database
 Techniques to minimize HLR access for location update
 Pointer forwarding between successive VLRs
 Local anchoring at a serving VLR

61
Pointer Forwarding Scenario
HLR

VLR MSC VLR MSC

LA 1 2 LA 4
4
3
VLR MSC VLR MSC

LA 2 LA 3

62
Local Anchoring Scenario

HLR

Local Anchor 1
VLR MSC
VLR MSC
4 LA 4
LA 1
2 3

VLR MSC VLR MSC

LA 2 LA 3

63
 Dynamic Location Update
Algorithms
 Based on the call and mobility patterns of individual MS

Cells

Timer-based: Movement-based: Distance-based:

Location update is Location update is Location update is
performed periodically performed whenever the performed when the
at a constant time mobile terminal has distance traveled exceeds
interval T. crossed the cell boundary a certain threshold (e.g.,
M times (e.g., M = 4). threshold = 3). 64
Conclusions
 An overview on numerous aspects of a
cellular network:
 Topology, power control, making phone calls,
traffic engineering, multiple access, handoff
management and location management

65