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A Course of Physics

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 1


CHAPTER V
Oscillations and
Mechanical Waves
§1. Harmonic oscillations
§2. Simple and physical pendulums
§3. Damped and forced oscillations
§4. Mechanical waves

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 2


● Periodic motions or oscillations:
 Motions repeat themselves over and over
 Motions have a period, that is a time interval during which the
particle’s position and velocity return to the initial values
● Some examples:
 The back-and-forth motion of the pistons
in a car engine or in a locomotive
 Motion of swings
 Pendulums,….

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 3


§1. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

1.1 Describing oscillation:


By the example of SHM
we would like to present how
we can describe a oscillation
k
m
● We know that if we stretch
a spring with a mass on
the end and let it go, the k
mass will oscillate back m
and forth (if there is no
friction).
k
● The postion of the mass is m
defined by coordinates in
the x-axis

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 4


1.1.1 Some definitions:
 Displacement (x): the body’s position relative to the
equilibrium position ( O ) x = x(t)
the displacement x can be positive or negative
 Amplitude (A): the maximum magnitude of displacement
A ≡ | xmax |
displacement and amplitude have the length units
 Period (T): the time interval for one cycle. Period has the time
unit (second or second per cycle)

F = -kx
k a
m
O

x
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 5
 Frequency ( f ): the number of cycles in a unit of time.
Units of frequency is
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s = 1 s-1
 Angular frequency ( ω ): 2π times of frequency
ω = 2π.f
By this definition we can regard 1 cycle of oscillation
corresponds to the angle 2π radians, so units of angular
frequency is rad / s
 The formulas which relate T, f , ω:

f = 1/ T; T = 1/ f

ω = 2π.f = 2π / T

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 6


1.1.2 Equations of simple harmonic motion in 1-D:

From the 2-nd Newton’s Law


d2x k k
F = ma = − kx 2
= − x define ω=
dt m m

d2x This is the differential equation


2
= − ω 2
x
dt for one-dimensional oscillation

Try the solution x = x(t) = A cos(ωt)


dx
= −ωA sin ( ωt )
dt
d2x
2
= −ω2
A cos ( ωt ) = −ω2
x
dt
This works, so it must be a solution!
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 7
We have had the solution x = A cos(ωt)

To understand the meaning of the quantity ω in the equation, let’s


consider the following correspondence:

The uniform rotation the motion of the


of the vector OM projection P of M

|OM | = A

M x = A cos θ = A cos (ωt)


ω = 2π / T
θ=ωt
O P t=0 x So, ω is the angular velocity of
the rotation of OM , at the
same time, is also the angular
frequency of the oscillation of P

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 8


2
● We just showed that d x = −ω 2 x (which came from F = ma)
dt 2
has the solution x = A cos(ωt) .

● This is not a unique solution, though x = A sin(ωt) is also a


solution.

● The most general solution is a linear combination of these two


solutions!
x = B sin(ωt)+ C cos(ωt)

dx
= ωB cos ( ωt ) − ωC sin( ωt )
dt

d2x
2
= − ω 2
B sin ( ω t ) − ω 2
C cos ( ω t ) = − ω 2
x
dt

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 9


We want to use the most general solution:

x = A cos(ωt + φ) is equivalent to x = B sin(ωt)+ C cos(ωt)


x = A cos(ωt + φ)

= A cos(ωt) cosφ - A sin(ωt) sinφ

= C cos(ωt) + B sin(ωt)

where C = A cos(φ) and B = −A sin(φ)

It works!

So we can use x = A cos(ωt + φ) as the most general solution!

Still two parameters to specify, amplitude and phase…

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 10


● Drawing of A cos(ωt )
● A = amplitude of oscillation

T = 2π / ω

−2π −π π 2π θ
A

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 11


● Drawing of A cos(ωt + φ)

−2π −π π 2π θ

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 12


● Drawing of A cos(ωt - π/2) = A sin(ωt)

φ=
−π/2

−2π −π π 2π θ

= A sin(ωt)!

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 13


● Drawing of A cos(ωt + φ)

−2π −π π 2π θ

● Just that the amplitude and phase are both able to be set
● The phase relates to the initial conditions of oscillation
(this relation will be considered below)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 14


So, what is a simple harmonic oscillation?

We can use both following equivalent definitions:

● Oscillation under the restoring force which is directly


proportional to the displacement
(using the condition for oscillation)

● Oscillation in which the displacement is a sinusoidal (that


is, sin or cos) function of time
(using the function dependence of displacement)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 15


1.1.3 Velocity and Acceleration in SHM:

Position: x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)


Velocity: v(t) = - ω A sin(ωt + φ) by taking
Acceleration: a(t) = - ω2 A cos(ωt + φ) derivatives,
since:

xMAX = A
vMAX = ωA
dx ( t )
v( t ) =
aMAX = ω2A dt
dv ( t )
k a( t ) =
m dt

0 x

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 16


Example:

● A mass oscillates. Its position as a function of time is shown


below. At which of the points shown does the mass have
positive velocity and negative acceleration?

x(t)
(a)
(c)
t
(b)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 17


dx
● The slope of x(t) tells us the sign of the velocity since v=
dt
● x(t) and a(t) have the opposite sign since a(t) = -ω2 x(t)

a<0 a<0
v<0 x(t) v>0
(a)
(c)
t
(b)
a>0 The answer is (c).
v>0

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 18


1.2 Initial Conditions and phase:

Use “initial conditions” to determine phase φ! x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)


Suppose we are told x(0) = 0 , and x is v(t) = -ωA sin(ωt + φ)
initially increasing (i.e. v(0) = positive): a(t) = -ω 2
A cos(ωt + φ)

x(0) = 0 = A cos(φ) φ = π/2 or -π/2


0 < v(0) = -ωA sin(φ) φ<0

So φ = - π/2
θ
π 2π
k cos sin
m

0 x

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 19


So we find φ = - π/2 !!

x(t) = A cos(ωt - π/2 ) x(t) = A sin(ωt)


v(t) = - ωA sin(ωt - π/2 ) v(t) = ω A cos(ωt)
a(t) = - ω2A cos(ωt - π/2 ) a(t) = - ω2A sin(ωt)

A x(t)

ωt
π 2π
k
m -A

0 x

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 20


1.3 Superposition of harmonic oscillations:

● If you added the two sinusoidal waves shown in the top plot,
what would the result look like?

1.00

0.50

1000
500
100

200

300

400

600

700

800

900
0.00
0

-0.50

-1.00

0.60

0.40

0.20

(a)

1000
500
100

200

300

400

600

700

800

900
0.00
0

-0.20

-0.40

-0.60

2.00
1.50
1.00

(b)
0.50

1000
500
100

200

300

400

600

700

800

900
0.00
0

-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00

0.6

0.4

(c) 0.2

1000
100

200

700
300

400

500

600

800

900
0
0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 21


 A+B  A −B
● Recall your trig identities: cos( A ) + cos ( B ) = 2 cos  cos 
 2   2 
So cos(ωt ) + cos(ωt − φ ) = a cos(ωt −b )

φ
where b=
2
φ 
a = 2 cos 
2 

● The sum of two or more sines or cosines having the same


frequency is just another sine or cosine with the same frequency.

● In general case if sines or cosines have not the same frequency


their sum will not be sine or cosine the sum will not be
SHM.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 22


1.4 Energy of simple harmonic motion:

● We can study SHM by using energy considerations. Let’s


calculate the kinetic energy and the potential energy of body
in SHM:
1 2 1 2
E = K + U = mv + kx .
2 2
1 1
E = m[ −ωA sin(ωt +φ)] + k [ A cos(ωt +φ)]
2 2

2 2
k
Recall that ω= we can obtain
m

1
E= kA2 = constant
2
The total mechanical energy of body in SHM is conserved
and proportional to the square of amplitude

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 23


● K is proportional to v2
● U is protional to x2
● By the energy diagram:
 U = Umax at x = ± A
 K = Kmax at x = 0
U
 During oscillation K and U
vary and convert each to other K
but their sum is conserved E
U
x
-A 0 A

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 24


§2. The Simple and Physical Pendulums:
2.1 The Simple Pendulum:

● A pendulum is made by suspending a mass m z


at the end of a string of length L. Find the
angular frequency of oscillation for small
displacements:
θ L

θ ( t ) = θ MAX cos( ωt + φ )

m
This ω is the angular frequency
mg

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 25


● A Taylor expansion of sin θ and cos θ about θ = 0 gives:

θ3 θ5 θ2 θ4
sin θ = θ − + − ... and cos θ = 1 − + − ...
3! 5 ! 2! 4!

So for θ << 1, sin θ ≈ θ and cos θ ≈ 1

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 26


● Recall that the torque due to gravity about the rotation (z)
axis is τ = - mgd
for small θ
z
so τ = - mg Lθ
d 2θ
● But τ = I α , I = mL2 − mgLθ = mL 2

dt 2
τ I α θ L

d 2θ g
= −ω 2
θ where ω=
dt 2 L
m
Differential equation for simple harmonic motion! d
mg
θ = θ 0 cos(ωt + φ)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 27


Caution: Here by ω we denote the angular frequency
but not the angular velocity!

2π L
Since T = T = 2π
ω g

Remark: If we make a pendulum shorter,


it oscillates faster (smaller period)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 28


2.2 The Rod Pendulum:

● A pendulum is made by suspending a thin rod of length L


and mass m at one end. Find the angular frequency of
oscillation for small displacements.
z

θ
xCM
L
mg

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 29


● The torque about the rotation (z) axis is

τ = -mgd = -mg(L/2)sinθ ≈ -mg(L/2)θ for small θ


z
1 d
● In this case I = mL2 d I
3    L/2
2 d θ
2

L 1
So τ = Iα becomes − mg θ = mL
2 3 dt 2 θ
xCM
L
d 2θ 3g mg
2
= −ω 2
θ where ω=
dt 2L

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 30


● Using τ = Iα and sinθ ≈ θ for small θ
z
2 d θ
2
L 1
− mg θ = mL L/2
2 3 dt 2
τ I α θ
We found xCM
d L
d 2θ 3g mg
2
= −ω 2
θ where ω=
dt 2L

Which has SHM solution θ = θ0 cos(ωt + φ)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 31


Example 1:

● You are sitting on a swing. A friend gives you a small push


and you start swinging back & forth with period T1.
● Suppose you were standing on the swing rather than sitting.
When given a small push you start swinging back & forth
with period T2.

➧ Which of the following is true:

(a) T1 = T2
(b) T1 > T2
(c) T1 < T2

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 32


Standing up raises the CM of the swing, making it shorter!

Since L1 > L2 we see that T1 > T2 the option (b)

L2
L1

T1 T2
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 33
Example 2:

● What length do we make the simple pendulum so that it


has the same period as the rod pendulum?

LS
LR

3 2
(a) LS = LR (b) LS = LR (c) LS = LR
2 3

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 34


g 3g
ωS = ωR =
LS 2 LR
LS
LR

2 the option (b)


ωS = ωP if LS = LR
3

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 35


2.3 General Physical Pendulum:

● Suppose we have some arbitrarily shaped


solid of mass M hung on a fixed axis, and
that we know where the CM is located and
what the moment of inertia I about the axis is. z-axis
● The torque about the rotation (z) axis for d
small θ is (sin θ ≈ θ )
R
d 2θ
≈ − MgRθ = I τ = 2 θ
-Mgd -MgRθ dt
xCM
τ α

2
Mg
d θ MgR
= −ω 2 θ where ω=
dt 2 I
θ = θ0 cos(ωt + φ)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 36


Example:

● A pendulum is made by hanging a thin hoola-hoop of


diameter D on a small nail.
➧ What is the angular frequency of oscillation of the hoop
for small displacements? (ICM = mR2 for a hoop)

pivot (nail)
g
(a) ω=
D

2g
(b) ω= D
D

(c) g
ω=
2D

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 37


● The angular frequency of oscillation of the hoop for small
mgR (see slide 13 this lect.)
displacements will be given by ω =
I

Use parallel axis theorem: I = Icm + mR2


= mR2 + mR2 = 2mR2
pivot (nail)
mgR g g
ω= = =
2 mR 2 2R D
cm
x R
g
So ω= m
D

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 38


§3. Damped and Forced Oscillations:

3.1 Damped oscillation:

● The conditions for SHM (sinusoidal oscillation):


 body oscillates under the only restoring force
 there are no other forces (friction, air resistance,…)
oscillation continues forever with no decrease in amplitude

● Real-world systems always have some dissipative forces


the body losts energy and the amplitude of oscillation
decreases, then the body’s motion is called damped
oscillation

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 39


Simple Harmonic
Damped oscillation
Motion (SHM)

F = −kx F = −kx −bv

d 2x k d 2x k b dx
= − x 2
=− x−
dt 2
m dt m m dt

x = A cos(ωt +φ) x = Ae −( b / 2 m ) t cos(ω' t +φ)


2
k k  b 
ω= ω' = − 
m m  2m 

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 40


Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 41
3.2 Forced Oscillation and Resonance:
● A damped oscillation will eventually stop moving
● We can maintain a constant amplitude of oscillation by
applying a periodic force
(for example, there is in a clock a machine which gives the
periodic force with definite frequency)
● So, besides the restoring force, an oscillating body can be
acted by an additional force which is called driving forces
● In this case the oscilation of body is called forced oscillation
or driven oscillation
● We differ three kinds of angular frequency:
 Driving angular frequency: ωd
 Natural angular frequency: ω’ (determined by m,k,b)
 SHM’s angular frequency: ω0 (determined by m,k)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 42


Suppose that the driving force has the form F (t ) = Fmax cos(ωd t )

When there is little damping (small b) the expression of amplitude


of drived oscillation has the form
Fmax
A=
( k − mωd2 ) 2 +b 2ωd2 A

Amplitude has a peak


when
( k − mωd2 ) 2 = 0
that is, when Fmax/ k

ωd = ω0 = k / m
ω0 = k / m ωd
This phenomena is called resonance.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 43


§4. Mechanical Waves:
● Whenever a system is disturbed from equilibrium and the
disturbance can propagate from one region of the system to
another the result is a wave process, or shortly, a wave.
● We can say that wave is the propagation of oscillations in space
through a medium (the air, water or solid).

● Note that in waves, the medium itself does not travel. Particles
of the medium undergo only motions around their equilibrium
waves transport energy, but not matter, from one region to
another.
● Propagation of mechanical oscillations in medium is called
mechanical wave. There are also nonmechanical waves, such
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves, light). E-M waves can
propagate in empty space.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 44


4.1 Types of Waves

Depending on the direction of oscillations of medium’s particles


relative to the direction of propagation we classify waves to two
types: transvere and longitudinal waves

● Transverse: The medium oscillates perpendicular to the


direction the wave is moving.

● Longitudinal: The medium oscillates in the same

direction as the wave is moving

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 45


Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 46
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 47
There are also different wave Forms:
v
● “Continuous waves”
waves
that go on forever
in each direction!

● We can also have “pulses” v


caused by a brief disturbance
of the medium:

v
● And “pulse trains” which are
somewhere in between.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 48


4.2 Properties of periodic waves:

Periodic waves: each particle of the medium undergoes periodic


motions
Sinusoidal waves: the motion of particles is SHM

● Amplitude: The maximum displacement A of a point on the wave.


● Wavelength: The distance λ between identical points on the wave.
Wavelength
λ
Amplitude A

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 49


● Period: The time T for a point on the wave to undergo one
complete oscillation.
Comment on periodity of waves:

Wave is periodic in time: Observing at a point in medium


the oscillation of particles repeats after one period T.
Wave is also periodic in space: Observing at a time moment
the position and velocity of particles repeat after one
wavelength λ. We can regard λ as “space period”.
● Speed: The wave moves one wavelength λ in one period T
so its speed is v = λ / T.

v
λ
v=
T

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 50


● The speed of a wave is a constant that depends only on
the medium*, not on amplitude, wavelength, or period

v=λ/T λ and T are related!

● λ =vT or λ = 2π v / ω (since T = 2π / ω )

or λ = v / f (since T = 1 / f )

● Recall f = cycles/sec or revolutions/sec
ω = rad/sec = 2πf

* See the example below

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 51


Example on the calculation of wave’s speed:

Waves on a string...

Suppose:
● The tension in the string is F
● The mass per unit length of the string is µ (kg/m)
● The shape of the string at the pulse’s maximum is
circular and has radius R

µ R

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 52


● The total force FNET is the sum of the tensions F at
each end of the string segment.
● The total force is in the -y direction.

θ θ

F F

FNET = 2F θ
y

x (since θ is small, sin θ ~ θ)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 53


● The mass m of the segment is its length (R x 2θ) times
its mass per unit length µ.

m = R 2θ µ
θ θ

R

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 54


● The acceleration a of the segment is v 2/ R (centripetal)
in the -y direction.

R
y

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 55


v2
● So FNET = ma becomes: 2 Fθ = R 2 θµ ⋅
R
FTOT m a

F
F = µv 2 v=
µ

tension F
mass per unit length µ

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 56


So we find: F
● v=
µ

tension F
mass per unit length µ

● Making the tension bigger increases the speed.


● Making the string heavier decreases the speed.
● As we asserted earlier, this depends only on the nature of
the medium, not on amplitude, frequency, etc. of the wave.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 57


Example on wave speeds:

● The speed of sound in air is a bit over 300 m/s, and the speed of
light in air is about 300,000,000 m/s.
● Suppose we make a sound wave and a light wave that both
have a wavelength of 3 meters.
➧ What is the ratio of the frequency of the light wave to that of
the sound wave?

(a) About 1,000,000


(b) About 0.000001
(c) About 1000

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 58


● We have shown that v = λ / T = λf (since f = 1 / T )

v
So f =
λ

v light
Since λ is the same in both cases, and ≅ 1,000,000
v sound

flight
≅ 1,000,000
fsound

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 59


● What are these frequencies???

v 300 m s
For sound having λ = 3m : f = ≈ = 100 Hz (bass hum)
λ 3m

v 3 ×10 8 m s
For light having λ = 3m : f = ≈ = 100 MHz (FM radio)
λ 3m

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 60


4.3 Wave Equation:
y

● Suppose we have some function y = f(x):

x
0
y
● f(x - a) is just the same shape moved
a distance a to the right:

x
0 x=a
y
● Let a = vt Then v
f(x - vt) will describe the same
shape moving to the right with
speed v. x
0 x = vt

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 61


y λ
● Consider a wave that is harmonic A
in x and has a wavelength of λ.
x
● If the amplitude is maximum at
x = 0 this has the functional form: What’s this function of x?
Hint: use λ and A…
2 π 
y ( x ) = A cos  x
 λ  y v

● Now, if this is moving to


the right with speed v it will be x
described by:

2π
y ( x , t ) = A cos  ( x − vt ) 
 λ 

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 62


● So we see that a simple harmonic wave moving with
speed v in the x direction is described by the equation:
 2π 
y x , t = A cos  ( x − vt ) 
( )
 λ 
λ λω 2π
● By using v= = and by defining k≡
T 2π λ

y ( x , t ) = A cos ( kx − ωt )

At a fixed point x0 the depdendence of y on time is


y ~ cos(ωt + α)
At a fixed moment t0 the depdendence of y on space is
y ~ cos(kx + β)
The simultanous periodity in time and in space is obvious !!

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 63


Summary on Wave Equation

y λ
● The formula y ( x , t ) = A cos ( kx − ωt )
describes a harmonic wave of A
amplitude A moving in the x
+x direction.

● Each point on the wave oscillates in the y direction with


simple harmonic motion of angular frequency ω.

● The wavelength of the wave is λ =
k
ω
● The speed of the wave is v =
k
● The quantity k is often called the “wave number”

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 64


 2π 2π 
Periodity: y ( x, t ) = A cos x− t
 λ T 

space “period” time period

Describing the direction of propagation:

● A harmonic wave moving in the positive x direction can be


described by the equation y(x,t) = A cos ( kx - ωt )
● Which of the following equations describes a harmonic wave
moving in the negative x direction?
(a) y(x,t) = A sin (kx − ωt)
(b) y(x,t) = A cos (kx + ωt)
(c) y(x,t) = A cos (−kx + ωt)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 65


● Recall y(x,t) = A cos (kx - ωt) came from

 2π
y ( x, t ) = A cos ( x − vt ) 
 λ 

● The sign of the term containing the t determines the


direction of propagation.
● We change the sign to change the direction:

y(x,t) = A cos (kx − ωt) moving toward +x

y(x,t) = A cos (kx + ωt) moving toward -x

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 66


● Recall y(x,t) = A cos ( kx - ωt ) came from

 2π
y ( x, t ) = A cos ( x − vt ) 
 λ 

● Actually , it’s the relative sign between the term containing


the x and the term containing the v:

y(x,t) = A cos (kx − ωt) moving toward +x


y(x,t) = A cos (-kx + ωt) = A cos (-(kx − ωt))
= A cos (kx − ωt) also moving toward +x

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 67


4.4 Wave Energy and Power:

● A wave propagates because each part of the medium


communicates its motion to adjacent parts.
 Energy is transferred since work is done!

● How much energy is moving down the string per unit time.
(i.e. how much power?)

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 68


● Think about grabbing the left side of the string and pulling it
up and down in the y direction.

You are clearly doing work since F.dr > 0 as your hand

moves up and down.


● This energy must be moving away from your hand (to the
right) since the kinetic energy (motion) of the string stays
the same.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 69


How is the energy moving?

● Consider any position x on the string. The string to the left


of x does work on the string to the right of x, just as your
hand did:

θ
Power P = F.v x
F
v

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 70



Since v is along the y axis only, to evaluate Power = F.v
we only need to find Fy = - F sin θ ≈ -F θ if θ is small.
y
● We can easily figure out both the θ
velocity v and the angle θ at any Fy x
point on the string:
y ( x , t ) = A cos( kx − ωt ) F v
● If
θ dy
dy
v y ( x ,t ) = = ωA sin ( kx − ωt ) dx
dt
Recall
dy sin θ ≈tanθ θ≈θ
tan θ = = −kA sin ( kx − ωt ) ≈ θ
dx cos θ ≈ 1
for small θ
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 71
v y ( x,t ) = ωAsin ( kx − ωt )
θ ≈ −kAsin ( kx − ωt )
● So: P(x,t) ≈ −Fθv y = ωkFA2 sin 2 (kx − ωt )
ω
● But we have had the formulas v = and F = µv 2
k
(recall that μ is mass per unit length)

P ( x , t ) = µvω2 A 2 sin 2 ( kx − ωt )

cos ( kx − ωt )

sin 2 ( kx − ωt )

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 72


● We just found that the power flowing past location x on the
string at time t is given by:

P ( x, t ) = µvω2 A2 sin2 ( kx − ωt )

● The maximum value of this instantaneous power:

Pmax = µ v ω2 A2
● We are often just interested in the average power flowing past
location x. Recall that the average value of the function
sin2 (kx - ωt) is 1/2 and find that:

1
P = µ v ω2 A2
2

● It is generally true that wave power is proportional to the


speed of the wave v and its amplitude squared A2.

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 73


t2
1
Average value of a function: f =
T ∫ f (t )dt
t1

f(t)
f

T t
t1 t2

Average value of sin2 over one any period:

2  2π
T
1  1

T 0
sin 
T
t + α 

dt =
2

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 74


● We have shown that energy “flows” along the string.
 The source of this energy (in our picture) is the hand
that is shaking the string up and down at one end.
 Each segment of string transfers energy to (does work
on) the next segment by pulling on it, just like the hand.

1
● We found that P = µω2 A2v
2

dE 1 dx 1
= µω2 A2 dE = µω2 A2 dx
dt 2 dt 2

dE 1
So = µω2 A2 is the average energy per unit length.
dx 2

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 75


● A rope with a mass of µ= 0.2 kg/m lays on a frictionless
floor. You grab one end and shake it from side to side
twice per second with an amplitude of 0.15 m. You notice
that the distance between adjacent crests on the wave you
make is 0.75 m.
 What is the average power you are providing the rope?
 What is the average energy per unit length of the rope?
 What is the tension in the rope?

f = 2 Hz λ = 0.75 m

A = 0.15 m

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 76


1
P= µvω 2 A2
2
● We know A, µand ω = 2πf. We need to find v

● Recall v = λf = (.75 m)(2 s-1) = 1.5 m/s .

● So: 1  kg  m
( 2π ⋅ 2 Hz ) ( 0.15 m )
2 2
P = 0 . 2 1 . 5
2  m  s 

Average power P = 0.533 W

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 77


dE 1
= µω2 A2
dx 2

● So: dE 1  kg 
 ( 2 π ⋅ 2 Hz ) ( 015
. m)
2 2
=  0.2
dx 2  m

Average energy per unit length

dE
= 0.355 J/m
dx

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 78


● We also know that the tension in the rope is related to
speed of the wave and the mass density:

2
 kg  m
F = µv 2 =  0.2 1.5 
 m  s

Tension in rope: F = 0.45 N

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 79


Recap & Useful Formulas:

y λ
A
x

● General harmonic waves ● Waves on a string

y ( x , t ) = A cos ( kx − ωt ) F
tension
v=
µ mass / length
2π 2π 1
k= ω = 2 πf = P =
µvω2 A2
λ T 2
ω
v = λf = dE 1
= µω2 A2
k dx 2

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 80


Some important concepts

Periodic motion ⊃ Oscillation ⊃ Simple harmonic motion


(Vibration) (SHM)

+ having an + having the sinusoidal


equilibrium dependence on time

In a sinusoidal wave:

At each point in the medium particles undergo a SHM

At each time moment, the position and velocity of particles


are the same through a path λ

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 81


Wave process is process of propagation of oscillations in space

Waves have periodic properties in time as well as in space


the expression under cosin (or sin) contains t and x
(we know that cosin (or sin) is periodic functions)

Direction of propagation of wave is expression by the relative


signs of ωt and kx in the expression under cosin (or sin):
ωt – kx wave propagates in (+) direction of x-axis
ωt + kx wave propagates in (-) direction of x-axis

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 82

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