DISEASE CONTROL HVD 21103

Disease Ecology

By:

Khairul Nizam Mohd Isa MCHSc (Environmental Health) UniKL MESTECH

Objectives
Understand and able to explain the interaction between ecology and disease Measure the population dynamic Study the ecological factors that change the pattern of diseases

Disease Ecology
Disease ecology summarizes the complex interactions between disease incidence in some host and various environmental/ecological processes influencing such incidence. Can study the disease ecology of chronic diseases with environmental drivers, but typically we focus on infectious diseases and seek descriptions of the primary route(s) of infection, the virulence of the pathogen, the role (if any) of vectors and reservoir hosts, and environmental impacts on the entire disease transmission process. Term environmental very broadly, including social contact networks, transportation, and species interaction as well as climate and land cover.

Disease Ecology
Such a broad definition of disease ecology necessarily includes a wide range of scientific disciplines including (but not limited to):
Immunology ntomology limate change eterinary medicine icrobiology Epidemiology Mathematical biology Public health surveillance

Why do the patterns of disease occur as they do? Conceptual: what variables are important?

Population interaction
Environmental diseases Present of risk factors in the environment that contribute to the occurrence of diseases Example: Cancer Respiratory diseases
Environment Pollutants Heavy metals Human Pesticides

Population interaction
Infectious diseases Diseases caused by infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminths. Examples: Cholera by Vibrio cholerae infection Ascariasis by Ascaris lumbricoides infection Influenza by influenza A virus
Environment

Human

Pathogens

Population interaction
Zoonotic diseases Diseases that can be passed from animals, whether wild or domesticated, to humans. Caused by bacteria, viruses, or other disease causing organisms that can live as well in humans as in other animals. Examples: Rabies is caused by rabies virus found in bat Toxoplasmosis by Toxoplasmosis gondii found in cat
Environment

Human

Pathogens

Reservoir

Population interaction
Vector borne diseases disease that is transmitted to humans or other animals by an insect or other arthropod The most significant mode of vector-borne disease transmission is by biological transmission by blood-feeding arthropods. Examples: Malaria vector is mosquito
Vector Environment

Human

Pathogens

Reservoir

Population Dynamic
Population is the branch of life sciences that studies short and longterm changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influence those changes. Population dynamic deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rate and by immigration and emigration and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline Population dynamics - species populations are constantly changing in size (or number of individuals), density, dispersion, and age distribution Population change = (birth + immigration) - (death + emigration)

Measuring dynamic in population

Dispersion Spatial distribution of individuals of a population Three general kinds of patterns: 1. Clumped (aggregated) dispersion Individuals clumped together Resources and suitable habitat may be patchy in distribution which causes organisms to form "clumps

Measuring dynamic in population

2. Regular dispersion Individuals all about the same distance from one another Often caused by competition among individuals in the same population

3. Random dispersion Habitat is relatively uniform so individuals are neither repelled or attracted to one another.

Measuring dynamic in population

Population density Number of individuals per unit area or unit volume Density is a measure of population size. Like distribution, density is influenced by biotic and abiotic factors in the environment. There are four primary factors that determine population size. 1. Natality - addition of organisms to population through reproduction. Increases population density. 2. Mortality - lose of organisms from the population due to death. Decreases population density. 3. Immigration - addition of organisms that move into a population. Same effect as natality (+). 4. Emigration - loss of individuals that move out of the population. Same effect as mortality (-).

Measuring dynamic in population

Factor that determine the future size of a population
Immigration + + Natality Population Size Emigration Mortality

Measuring dynamic in population

We will ignore immigration and emigration and concentrate on natality and mortality. Contributions of these processes can be expressed as rates: Birth rate (b) = number born/individual in pop./unit time. e.g. if a population of 500 mice produces 100 young by reproduction in a month, then b = 100/500 per month = 0.20/individual/month. Death rate (d) = number dying/individual in pop./unit time e.g. if during one month 80 individuals in our population of 500 die, then d = 80/500 per month = 0.16/individual/month The difference between b and d determines whether the population increases, decreases or remains constant in size. Clearly, if b > d, the population will increase size through time; if b = d, population is not changing size; if b < d, population is getting smaller.

Conceptual model of effects of ecosystem on disease dynamics Ecological Process Community Ecosystem Landscape

Host diversity/ Species composition

Vector diversity/ Species composition

Pathogen diversity/ Species composition

Disease dynamics The dynamics of infectious disease are most immediate affected by host, vector, and pathogen diversity, abundance and behavior. But host, vector and pathogen are embedded within ecological community, ecosystem and landscape.
Source: Keesing, F. 2008. Effects of ecosystem on disease. In. Ostfeld, R.S., Keesing, F. & Eviner, V.T. (editors) Infectious disease ecology: Effects of ecosystem on disease and of disease on ecosystem. New jersey: Princeton University Press. Pg. 9-12

Disease Ecology Paradigm

Incidence, spatial distribution (where, how many infected) and timing of diseases reflect the interactions of populations with each other, in the environment.

Changes pattern of disease

Factors that contribute to the emergence and reemergence of disease include:
1. Microbial evolution 2. Complacency and the breakdown of public health infrastructure 3. Changes in human behaviour 4. Advance in technology 5. Population expansion 6. Mass distribution and importation of food 7. Development 8. War and civil conflict 9. Climate changes

Thank You

References
Mulvihill, M.L., Zelman, M., Holdaway, P., Tompary, E. & Turchany, J. 2005. Human Disease: A systemic approach. Ed. 5. Prentice Hall.