Seminar on

By: Wahdatullah khpalwak. ID No: PGS10AGR5355 Jr. M. Sc., Dept. of Plant Pathology

Disturbance from plant pathogen or environmental factor that interferes with plant physiology.

Causes changes in plant appearance or yield loss. Direct damage to cells, Toxins, growth regulators, or other byproducts that affect metabolism, Use of nutrients and water or interference with their uptake.

Cultural Practices for Disease Management

It involves the principles of avoidance, exclusion and eradication. Requires complete knowledge of the nature of the pathogen and its behavior in different conditions of the environment climate, cropping system and etc. Contact between pathogen and host is most favorable for pathogen and pathogenesis.

Cultural Practices
Production and use of disease-free material Adjustment of crop culture to minimize disease incidence.

Field and plant sanitation.

Production and use of disease free propagating material

1) Dry climate for seed production Control of seed borne diseases which are favored by wet climate can be achieved by raising the crop in dry areas. Examples:
o Anthracnose of Bean (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) o Ascochyta blight of pea (Ascochyta spp.) o Bacterial blight of legumes (Pseudomonas syringae pv. pisi and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli).

2) Isolation distance for seed plots

o Separation of seed plots from sources of inoculums (commercial crop in the neighbourhood without proper protective steps) helps in production of healthy seeds. o A particular distance between plots is mandatory in the production of certified seed.

3) Inspection of seed plots

periodical inspection of the crop. Eradication of diseased plants or plant organs immediately followed by inspection. If the crop is badly diseased the plot is rejected for seed. Eg- production of wheat seed, potato seed tubers, seed material of sugarcane and seedlings and grafts of citrus and apple.

4) Drying and ageing of seeds

Storage of the seed for more than a year eliminates the pathogen. Some pathogens dont tolerate drying of seeds. eg- Peronospora sacchari in maize downy mildew Viability of some seed is longer than the pathogen present in them (store for two years). eg- (Fusarium solani fsp. cucurbitae) and (Xanthomonas auxonopodis pv. malvacearum) causes cotton blight.

5) Cleaning of seed
o Sclerotia and Oospores of many fungal pathogens and cockles and cysts of nematodes may be present in the debris mixed with the seed. eg- Ergot and Smut of pearl millet, white blisters of crucifers, Cyst nematode of sugar beet and Ear cockles of wheat.

6) Thermal and chemical treatment of seed

Chemical seed treatment is a compulsory step in the production of certified seed. Thermal treatment is favoured in those cases where the pathogen is deep seated and fungicides cant reach to the pathogen. Wheat seed with vitavax and thiram, hot air or hot water treatment for sugarcane seed material and bare root dip in nematicides for RKN and others.

7) Site and treatment of nursery beds

The nursery should be chosen with care, avoiding locations near infested fields. Soil should be periodically treated with chemicals or heat. eg. - Club root of cabbage, root knot of tomato and citrus gummosis are generally carried by seedlings.

8) Adjustment of harvesting time of the crop

Time of harvesting affects cleanliness of the seed. Delayed harvesting of grain crops in temperate regions gives the pathogen more chance to contaminate. eg. - harvesting of potato when the leaves are still green allows the late blight pathogen to contaminate tubers which carry it to next season.

Adjustment of crop culture to minimize disease incidence

1) Crop rotation
Advantages of crop rotation: Better use of nutrients Effect on soil texture with deep rooted crops alternating with shallow rooted crops like, cereals with legumes. Water economy, conservation of water in years of fallow.

Contd
Weed control in row crops, crops are likely to inhibit weeds by their rapid growth and dense foliage. Suppression of soil born pathogens. eg. - wilt diseases of pigionpea, chickpea, cotton and linseed, ergot and smut of pearl millet, leaf smut and bunt of rice, bacterial wilt of potato and tomato and cereal cyst nematode.

Table 1. Effect of short term rotations on some pathogens

Beneficial crop Rice Pea Sudangrass Maize, wheat or sorghum Legume cover crops Barley Legumes, sesame and wheat Groundnut Beet Preceding crop (host) Cotton Wheat Tomato Potato Potato Cotton Rice Tomato Cereals Pathogen reduced Vericillium dahliae Gaeumannomyces graminis Ralstonia solanacearum Ralstonia solanacearum Streptomyces scabies Meloidogye incognita Pratylenchus indicus Meloidogyne incognita Pratylenchus penetrans Singh, 2002

The success of crop rotation depends upon

Proper selection of crops in the sequence. Rotated crops should be resistant, immune or non-host to the pathogen. Their root exudates should not directly or indirectly favour survival of pathogen. The vegetables have to be rotated with cereals. The structure of survival and longevity of the pathogen should be known.

2. Fallowing
Keeping

the land fallow for some time also has been an ancient agricultural practice. It can be a part of the rotation. The field should be kept free from weeds. Repeated turning of the soil should be done to expose the pathogens to elements of weather. eg. - Fusarium wilt of banana and root knot nematode.

3) Monoculture: Cultivation of single or closely allied crop species in annual or seasonal succession.
It simplifies cropping by permitting full use of equipments for the crop chosen. Leads to specialization in culture of particular crop. As a system of perpetuating the diseases. Increases chances of new biotypes of pathogen. eg. - Verticillium sp, root knot and cyst nematode.

4) Mixed cropping Simultaneous cultivation of more than one crop in the same plot. eg. wheat with barley, wheat with chickpea, pigionpea with sorghum and cotton with mothbea.
Pigionpea with sorghum is suppressing fusarium wilt and rust spread. Chickpea with barley is suppressing ascochyta blight of chickpea.

Advantages of Mixed cropping:

Increased availability of nitrogen for crops mixed with legumes. More efficient use of solar radiation due to better interception of light by foliage. Better use of soil moisture at various depth. Suppression of weeds. Harvest of two food crops (cereals and pulses) in the same season.

Reduction in disease incidence in mix cropping is due to:

Reduction in the number of susceptible plants by spacing between diseased and healthy plant. The roots of non-host plants may act as physical barrier. Soil environment can changed by proper mixture. Reduction in chances of dormant structures which requires coming in contact the root for activation.

5) Adjustment of date of sowing

y Early or delayed sowing of a crop enables it escape

critical period of disease incidence. Examples: In northern India, early planted pea and chickpea (October) will suffer heavily from root rot and wilt, but late sown (Nov-Dec) little or no. In south India, rice sown from January to June develops no more than 5% leaf blast and 1% neck blast but in July planted crop the incidence increases to 20% and 25%.

6) Adjustment of depth of seeding

y Varying depth of sowing enables the host to avoid the

pathogen.
y Shallow sowing reduces damping off of seedlings. y Quicker emergence of seedlings reduces seedling

infection cause by smut fungi.

y Deep placement of seeds give the pathogen more time to

invade the seed and seedlings.

y Maximum diseases in 4-5 cm depth and minimum in 2-3

cm depth.

7) Seeding rate and plant density

Dense

plants associated with most plant diseases. Crop canopy is major factor for most foliar diseases. Like downy mildew, late blight and , etc. The closeness of susceptible tissues causes rapid spread of the disease. Close seedlings in nursery are always in danger from damping off because of high humidity. Proper training of veins and removal of excess leaves helps in air circulation and penetration of light which reduces humidity.

Contd Dense seedling is desirable when seedling mortality is high due to poor seed vigor. In some cases dense planting is the method of reduction of disease. Like: Tomato leaf curl virus, transmits by (Bemisia tabaci). Cucumber mosaic virus by (Aphis gossypii),

Virticillium wilt of cotton and brown rot of soybean by (Cephalosporium gragatum)

8) Management of irrigation y The aim is to wet the soil only that roots easily get water and mineral nutrients. y Excess water/water stress may effect the activity of pathogen on the host.
eg. - Common scab of potato (Streptomyces scabies) is preventing by soil moisture near field capacity during tuberization (effect is mediated through increasing activity of antagonistic bacteria on lenticels).

Different methods of irrigation

Contd
The

charcoal rot fungi (Macophomina phaseolina) attacks potato tubers in water stress and high temperature. More water in seedling stage make them susceptible to the damping off (Pythium spp.) In citrus foot and root rot (Phytophthora spp.) fungi in soil immediately increase after irrigation, the release and their movement is optimal in saturated soil.

Contd

The sprinkler irrigation generally favours to the foliar diseases by increasing leaf wetness and dispersing pathogen propagules by water splashes.

Timing of irrigation, - in Karnal bunt of wheat, high humidity during flowering promotes the disease.

Sprinkler irrigation

9) Management of host nutrition ` Excess nitrogen promotes vegetative growth and delays maturity which favours diseases. eg. Potato late blight, rice false smut, blast, sheath blight, and bacterial leaf blight. ` Under deficient nitrogen, the growth is slow and development is incomplete so favours disease. eg. Tomato wilt, bacterial wilt of potato and tomato, root rot and early blight.

Cont Micro nutrients:

Calcium prevent soft rot in apples and potato. Zinc deficiency in rice is serious in India, and in Guava linked to wilt and decline of the trees, and in Maize make Downy mildew more aggressive. Association of Mg deficiency with Groundnut leaf spots and K and Zn with linseed wilt are reported. Boron deficiency results in disintegration of core tissues in apple and other fruits.

10) Management of soil acidity and alkalinity Most fungi, bacteria and nematodes can tolerate pH in which soil their host grows. In some cases the tolerance level of pathogen is narrow than the host plant.

Potato common scab (streptomyces scabies) is sensitive to acidity (below 5.2) but increases in pH of (5.2-8.0). By application of sulphur. Crucifers clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) is managed in 7 pH or above by adding lime CaCO3 or CaSO4 (Gypsum).

11) Organic amendments of soil Providing organic sources of nutrition to plants include use of compost, farmyard

manure, green manure, oil cakes alfalfa meal, wood sawdust, tree bark and etc.
y Decomposition takes place. y Promotes diversified microflora in soil including the

rhizosphere.
y Thus promote the natural biological control in the soil.

Examples: Reduction in common scab of potato (Streptomyces scabies) by green manuring with soybean through prevention of build up of inoculum was first report in (1926). Sugarbeet damping off (Aphanomyces cochlioides), Helminthosporium foot rot of wheat, Fusarium root rot of bean, Pigeonpea wilt (F.udum), Citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans), Tobacco cyst nematode (Heterodera tobacum) and sugarbeet cyst nematode ( Heterodera schachti).

Table 2. Pathogens Suppressed by Organic Amendments of Soil

Pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi Fusarium oxysporum fsp. cubense F. oxysporum f.sp. corianderi Thielaviopsis basicola Macrophomina phaseolina Rhizoctonia solani Streptomyces scabies Verticillium alboatrum Meloidogyne spp. Heterodera avenae Globodera rostochiensis Host/ disease Avocado root rot Banana wilt Coriander wilt Bean root rot Cowpea charcool rot, cotton root rot Potato black scurf Potato scab Potato wilt Root knot Amendments Lucern, alfalfa meal. Sugarcane bagasse Oil-cakes Oat straw, corn stover, lucern hay Margosa oil cake, FYM, barley straw, lucern hay Saw dust, oil cakes, wheat straw Soybean green manure Barley straw Oil cakes, sawdust green leaves

Cereal cyst nematode Crucifer green manure, black mustard oil Potato cyst nematode Farmyard manure Singh, 2001

Organic amendments operation mechanisms:

Decomposition of crucifer leaves released sulphur compounds which are toxic to many fungi and nematodes. Lucerne meal release ammonia which is toxic to fungi as well as nematodes. Alfalfa meal release saponins which reduce the activity of the Phytophthora cinnamomi.

Contd

Decomposition of organic matter induces germination of dormant structures and killed by germination-lysis.

Important one is increase in the number of antagonistic microorganisms.

Antagonistic Rhizobacteria not only inhibit the pathogen but also induces resistance (ISR) through their metabolites.

Formulated soil amendment or S-H mixture: It consisting of agricultural waste (baggasse, rice husk), powdered oyster shells, silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, ferrous oxide, urea, potassium nitrate and calcium superphosphate. Effective against Fusarium wilt of watermelon, radish, clubroot of cabbage (Plasmodiophora brassicae), cucumber blight (Phytophthora melonis), rice sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) and tomato bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum).
Sun and Huang, 1985

12) Management of the top soil

Covering the top soil with organic residues helps in reducing plant diseases. Unrelated materials should be used as mulch. eg. waste paper, wheat straw, etc. In vegetable crops its very effective especially for nematode diseases. Known to release inhibitory substances in the soil, promote development of parasites and predators of nematodes.

Shaping the top soil into beds is a part of tillage and well known means for drying soil
Ridges have proved effective in reducing incidence of Sclerotium rolfsi on many vegetables and groundnut, Pythium fruit rot of cucurbits and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in some vegetables, in many cases Rhizoctonia solani is also reduced. Ridging is harmful where water deficit exists.

Management of top soil by heat treatment up to cultivated depth. Deep ploughing to turn the top soil, exposing it to hot summer sun, kills many pathogen propagules including cyst of. Burning of crop debris destroys pathogens present in the surface soil. For sterilization in nursery beds, burning of 3045 cm thick layer crop debris, grasses and weeds spread over the bed is effective.

Soil solarization:
y A novel technique (hydrothermal treatment) of soil by

solar heat.
y Moistened soil covered in summer with transparent

polyethylene film (25m thick) to prevent dissipation of trapped solar heat.

y Temperature rises 13-15C than the normal, reaching

50-55C at 8 cm depth.
y Kills most fungal, bacterial and nematode propagules

as well as weed seeds.

Table 3. Mean of disease parameters of two potato cultivars (Alpha and Turbo) inoculated by (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn) as affected by different cultural practices in the glasshouse Treatments N P F+S F CM S Disease incidence 0.84 0.00 0.70 0.75 0.59 0.61 Disease severity 5.92 0.00 3.60 3.68 2.99 2.78 Sclerotia 0.46 0.00 0.12 0.19 0.09 0.12 Hamid et. al., 1998 N= -ive culture (infested soil), P= +ive culture (healthy soil), F+S= Flooded then Solarized, F= Flooded, CM= Cow Manure, S= Solarized.

13)Minimizing influx of inoculum from neighbouring crops y Unprotected neighbouring field is major source of inoculum for spread of diseases eg.
Tomato leaf curl, cucurbits and crucifers downy mildew, late blight of potato and tomato and ergot of pearl millet. Neighbouring field having loose smut affected wheat crops may provide inoculum for floral infection which leads to many seed diseases.

14) Choice of crop variety

y

Choice of one or more resistant varieties of any crop is always desired.

But large scale cultivation of a single resistant variety for many years in same area is unjustified, it enables the pathogen to develop new races and breakdown resistance.

Field and Plant Sanitation

Sanitation is main part of cultural practices of disease management. Is essential even if disease free seed or planting material and other cultural practices have been followed.
eg. Wilt disease of banana, fungus can grow and reproduce conidia and chlamydospores in dead roots and rhizomes, if we remove and destroy there will be rapid decline of pathogen population in the soil.

1)Management of crop debris

nfected crop debris (roots) not only serves as medium for survival of the pathogens, is a substrate for their multiplication and increase in the quantity of inoculum. y Destruction of these sources helps in control of many diseases.
y
Burning of debris of disease field crop. Deep ploughing to bury the debris after harvest. Burning rice crop residue followed by stubble disc ploughing effectively minimizing the inoculum of Sclerotium oryzae.

Table 4. The effect of stubble burning on the incidence of flag smut in a commercial crop of a susceptible (cv. Gamut) and a resistant (cv. Timgalen).
Percentage of infected plants Treatment Gamut Timgalen

Unburnt

44.0

1.5

Burnt

1.3

Trace

(Ogle and Dale, 1968)

2) Management of diseased plants

Roguing: is effective to reduce the amount of initial

inoculum and spread of diseases. Mostly for viral diseases and loose smut of wheat.
Defoliation and Pruning: for sanitation of veins and

trees.
Stock and scion should be free from disease and

should be given heat treatment before planting in orchard. eg. Disease by viruses and fastidious prokaryotes.

Removal of infected branches

Removal of infected leaves

3) Crop-free period and crop-free zone

The

pathogens attacking crops of secondary

importance and having narrow host range can be controlled by maintaining crop-free period of definite duration.
Requires The

cooperative effort by farmers in the area.

pathogen is starved by absence of host in wide

zone. - Recommended in bunchy top of banana.

4)Decoy crops, trap crops and antagonistic crops A. Decoy crops: ` Also referred as catch crops, cover crops or Hostile crops. ` These are non-host crops sown for wasting the infection potential of soil borne pathogens before the susceptible main crop is grown. ` It stimulates the dormant structures but not the growth of pathogen. ` are of low economic value.

Table 8. Decoy crops for reduction of pathogen in soil. Pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae Spongospora subterranea Meloidogyne incognita Meloidogyne spp. Heterodera avenae Orobanche spp. Host Crucifers Potato Tomato Eggplant Oat Decoy crops Rye-grass, Reseda odorata Datura stromanium Castor Sesamum Maize

Tomato, Tobacco Chickpea, lucerne

B. Trap crops:
Highly susceptible host crops attracted to pathogen and destroyed before pathogen complete its life cycle.
Pathogen Common name Trap crop Oats (England) Solanum nigrum Crotalaria spp. And Bermuda grass

Heterodera avenae Cereal cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis Meloidogyne spp. Potato cyst nematode Root knot nematode

C. Antagonistic crops:

y y

Also referred as enemy crops. Are non-host crops, produce toxic compounds which directly destroys the pathogen in soil.

Some grasses, certain varieties of Mustard, Marigold, Crotalaria spp. and Asparagus.

5) Management of weed, collateral and volunteer host plants: The non-specialized pathogens having a very wide host range among weeds. Collateral and volunteer host plants carry over the pathogens from one season to next. Also provide a base for multiplication of the inoculum which may reach to epidemic. eg. Powdery mildew of cucurbits (Sphaerotheca fuliginea), sugarcane downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sacchari).

6) Management of insect vectors

y

They are bringing inoculum from outside and spreading in the field. Sanitation of field involves the control of insect vectors too.

7) Harvesting time and practices

The

choice

of

suitable

time

and

harvesting method is important

To protect the product from deteriorations. To reduce the chances of carrying over of

pathogen to next season.

To reduce chances of transmission of pathogen

through propagating materials to other fields.

Harvesting of fruits without proper sanitary precautions is major cause of fruit spoilage during transport and storage. Injury to fruit skin during harvest predisposes the fruit to infection of decay by fungi.