IE 337: Materials & Manufacturing Processes

Lecture 3: Metal Alloys and Heat Treatment

Chapters 3, 6 and 27

Last Time


The nature of metals

 Different crystalline structures  Different crystalline defects that affect properties

The properties of metals

 Mechanical properties  What they are and what they mean

Stress-Strain Relationships

Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile test of a metal.

True Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 3.4 - True stress-strain curve for the previous engineering stress-strain plot in Figure 3.3.

This Time
  

Hardness (Chapter 3) How can we modify mechanical properties in metals? (Chapter 6 and 27) Different types of metal alloys and how are they used (Chapter 6) Assignment #1

Hardness
 Resistance to permanent indentation  Good hardness generally means material is resistant to scratching and wear  Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for scratch and wear resistance

Brinell Hardness Test

 Widely used for testing metals and nonmetals of low to medium hardness  A hard ball is pressed into specimen surface with a load of 500, 1500, or 3000 kg
Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell

Brinell Hardness Number

Load divided into indentation area = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)

HB !

2F
2 TDb (Db  Db  Di2 )

where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), F = indentation load, kg; Db = diameter of ball, mm, and Di = diameter of indentation, mm

Rockwell Hardness Test

Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (b) Rockwell: (1) initial minor load and (2) major load.

Why Metals Are Important

 High stiffness and strength - can be alloyed for high rigidity, strength, and hardness  Toughness - capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of materials  Good electrical conductivity - Metals are conductors  Good thermal conductivity - conduct heat better than ceramics or polymers  Cost the price of steel is very competitive with other engineering materials

10

Metals: Periodic Table

26 Fe 55.847

11

Starting Forms of Metals used in Manufacturing Processes

 Cast metal - starting form is a casting  Wrought metal - the metal has been worked or can be worked after casting  Powdered metal - starting form is very small powders for conversion into parts using powder metallurgy techniques

12

Classification of Metals
 Ferrous - those based on iron  Steels  Cast irons  Nonferrous - all other metals  Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, zinc, lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver, platinum, and others  Superalloys

13

Metals and Alloys

 Some metals are important as pure elements (e.g., gold, silver, copper)  Most engineering applications require the enhanced properties obtained by alloying  Through alloying, it is possible to increase strength, hardness, and other properties compared to pure metals

14

Alloys
An alloy = a mixture or compound of two or more elements, at least one of which is metallic Two main categories: 1. Solid solutions
 

Substitutional Interstitial

2. Intermediate phases

15

Two Forms of Solid Solutions

Figure 6.1 Two forms of solid solutions: (a) substitutional solid solution, and (b) interstitial solid solution.

16

Equilibrium Binary Phase Diagram

Figure 6.2 Phase diagram for the copper-nickel alloy system.

17

Intermediate Phases
 There are usually limits to the solubility of one element in another  When the amount of the dissolving element in the alloy exceeds the solid solubility limit of the base metal, a second phase forms in the alloy  The term intermediate phase is used to describe it because its chemical composition is intermediate between two phases  Its crystalline structure is also different from those of the pure metals

18

Tin-Lead Phase Diagram

Figure 6.3 Phase diagram for the tin-lead alloy system.

19

Melting in the Tin-Lead Alloy System

    Pure tin melts at 232rC (449rF) Pure lead melts at 327rC (621rF) Tin-lead alloys melt at lower temperatures The diagram shows two liquidus lines that begin at the melting points of the pure metals and meet at a composition of 61.9% Sn  This is the eutectic composition for the tin-lead system

20

Eutectic Alloy
A particular composition in an alloy system for which the solidus and liquidus are at the same temperature  The eutectic temperature = melting point of the eutectic composition  The eutectic temperature is always the lowest melting point for an alloy system  The word eutectic is derived from the Greek word eutektos, meaning easily melted

21

Metals: Classification
FERROUS

22

IMPORTANCE OF IRON


Steel: engineered alloys based on iron (often containing carbon): 10,000 compositions in common use One of mankinds most popular engineering materials: 750 million tons per year Fe melting temp. = 1537C Fe density = 7.87 g/cm3

23

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Figure 6.4 Phase diagram for iron-carbon system, up to about 6% carbon.

24

The Several Phases of Iron

 The phase at room temperature is alpha (E), called ferrite (BCC)  At 912rC (1674rF), ferrite transforms to gamma (K), called austenite (FCC)  This transforms at 1394rC (2541rF) to delta (H) (BCC)  Pure iron melts at 1539rC (2802rF)

25

Solubility Limits of Carbon in Iron

 Ferrite phase can dissolve only about 0.022% carbon at 723rC (1333rF)  Austenite can dissolve up to about 2.1% carbon at 1130rC (2066rF)  The difference in solubility between alpha and gamma provides opportunities for strengthening by heat treatment

26

Steel and Cast Iron Defined

Steel = an iron-carbon alloy containing from 0.02% to 2.1% carbon Cast iron = an iron-carbon alloy containing from 2.1% to about 4% or 5% carbon  Steels and cast irons can also contain other alloying elements besides carbon

27

Fe-C: Properties

28

Annealing
Heating and soaking metal at suitable temperature for a certain time, and slowly cooling  Reasons for annealing:  Reduce hardness and brittleness  Alter microstructure to obtain desirable mechanical properties  Soften metals to improve machinability or formability  Recrystallize cold worked metals  Relieve residual stresses induced by shaping

29

Annealing of Steel
 Full annealing - heating and soaking the alloy in the austenite region, followed by slow cooling to produce coarse pearlite  Usually associated with low and medium carbon steels  Normalizing - similar heating and soaking cycle as in full annealing, but faster cooling rates,  Results in fine pearlite, higher strength and hardness, but lower ductility

30

Time-Temperature-Transformation Curve

Allotropic transformation - austenite to martensite

Figure 27.1 The TTT curve, showing transformation of austenite into other phases as function of time and temperature for a composition of about 0.80% C steel. Cooling trajectory shown yields martensite.

31

Tempering of Martensite
A heat treatment applied to martensite to reduce brittleness, increase toughness, and relieve stresses  Treatment involves heating and soaking at a temperature below the eutectoid for about one hour, followed by slow cooling  Results in precipitation of very fine carbide particles from the martensite iron-carbon solution, gradually transforming the crystal structure from BCT to BCC  New structure is called tempered martensite 32

Steels
Low Alloy low carbon med carbon high carbon <0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C
Name heat plain treatable Cr,V Cr, Ni Additions none none none Ni, Mo Mo Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ TS 0 + ++ + EL + + 0 plain HSLA plain
Uses auto bridges struc. towers sheet press. vessels pistons wear crank gears applic. shafts wear bolts hammers applic. blades

High Alloy

tool Cr, V, Mo, W 4190 +++ ++ -drills saws dies

austentitic stainless Cr, Ni, Mo 304 0 0 ++

high T applic. turbines furnaces V. corros. resistant

increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

33

Alloy Steels


Further refined from carbon steels, with elements added to modify or change the mechanical properties.

34

Alloy Steels


Further refined from carbon steels, with elements added to modify or change the mechanical properties. Tool Steels are special grades of alloy steels used for a variety of tooling, with very close control of the alloying element additions
 Highly wear-resistant  Highly shock-resistant  Heat-resistant

35

Alloy Steels


Cr addition improves corrosion resistance So does Ni

36

Alloy Steels: Alloying Elements



Boron
 Large increase in hardenability with very small addition of element

Cobalt
 Increases wear-resistance  Increases hot-hardness ability to keep shape at elevated temperature  Used in high speed steel

Chromium
 Increases depth hardness  Increases corrosion resistance  Principle component in stainless steel


Lead
 Reduces cutting friction, improving machinability  Good weldability  Good formability  Environmental concern

37

Alloy Steels: Alloying Elements



Manganese
 Large amounts (1% 15%) gives good hardness and wearresistance  Small amounts useful for purifying melt by combining with impurities and forming dross

Tungsten
 Provides high wearresistance  Adds hardenability and strength at elevated temperatures  Used in tool steels

Phosphorous / Sulfur
 Give excellent machining characteristics  Used in free-machining steels

Vanadium
 Also used to purify melt  Produces fine-grained steels

38

Alloy Steels: Alloying Elements



Molybdenum
    Aids toughness Used in tool steels Improves depth-hardness Improves strength at elevated temperatures

Nickel
 Provides corrosionresistance  Improves resistance to elevated temperatures  Used in stainless steels  Combined with Molybdenum to provide very tough steel for aircraft applications

39

General Cast Iron Properties



Advantages:
 Very good compressive strength  Good machinability  Reasonable corrosion resistance

Disadvantages:
 Natural brittleness

40

Cast Iron: 2-4.5 wt. % C

Gray Iron
1-3 % Si cheap used in compression vibrational damping (machinery housing)

Ductile Iron
Mg, Ce, Ca, Li, Na, Ba to gray iron stronger and ductile (valves, gears, crankshafts)

White Iron
< 1% Si brittle, wear resistant malleable iron precursor (rollers)

Malleable Iron
< 1% Si heat treat white iron strong, malleable (connecting rods, transmission gears flanges, fittings)

41

Non-Ferrous Metals
 

Metals whose major element is not Iron (wow!) Compared to Iron & Steel:
 Density (strength to weight ratio), non-corrosive  Conductivity, fabricatability (machined, formed, cast)  Cost (by weight)

Major Materials:
      Aluminum Alloys Copper & Copper Alloys Magnesium Nickel & Nickel Alloys Refractories Superalloys

42

Non-Ferrous Alloys
Cu Alloys
3 Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower V: 2.7g/cm (costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip. Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct. subst. impurity aircraft parts (bushings, landing & packaging) gear) NonFerrous Mg Alloys Cu-Be: 3 -very low V: 1.7g/cm Alloys precip. hardened -ignites easily for strength -aircraft, missles

Al Alloys

Refractory metals -lower V: 4.5g/cm3 -high melting T vs 7.9 for steel Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta -reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt -oxid./corr. resistant -space applic.

Ti Alloys

43

Aluminum Alloys


Pure metal properties:

    Low density, melting point Ductile Malleable Good electrical / thermal conductor

Typical uses of Al:

 High strength aircraft structures  Low pressure hydraulic/pneumatic fittings  Jet engine parts  Truck frames

Alloying elements:
     Copper Magnesium Silicon Manganese Zinc

44

Precipitation Hardening
Heat treatment that precipitates fine particles that block the movement of dislocations and thus strengthen and harden the metal  Principal heat treatment for strengthening alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, and other nonferrous metals  Also utilized to strengthen a number of steel alloys that cannot form martensite by the usual heat treatment

45

Conditions for Precipitation Hardening

 The necessary condition for whether an alloy system can be strengthened by precipitation hardening is the presence of sloping solvus line in the phase diagram  A composition in this system that can be precipitation hardened is one that contains two equilibrium phases at room temperature, but which can be heated to a temperature that dissolves the second phase

46

Precipitation Hardening

Figure 27.5 Precipitation hardening: (a) phase diagram of an alloy system consisting of metals A and B that can be precipitation hardened; and (b) heat treatment: (1) solution treatment, (2) quenching, and (3) precipitation treatment.

47

Sequence in Precipitation Hardening

1. Solution treatment - alloy is heated to a temperature Ts above the solvus line into the alpha phase region and held for a period sufficient to dissolve the beta phase 2. Quenching - to room temperature to create a supersaturated solid solution 3. Precipitation treatment - alloy is heated to a temperature Tp, below Ts, to cause precipitation of fine particles of the beta phase

48

Copper Alloys


Pure metal properties:

    Very soft Ductile Malleable Good electrical / thermal conductor

Typical uses of Cu:

 Electronics production  Electrical conductors

Typical uses as Bronze:

    Machine parts Bearings Corrosion-resistant fittings Electrical connectors

Alloying elements:
 Alloyed with Sn to make Bronze  Alloyed with Zn to make Brass


Typical uses as Brass:

 Hardware  Marine corrosionresistance  Ornamental applications

49

Magnesium Alloys


Pure metal properties:

 Lightweight  Strong (per unit volume)  Flammable in fine sizes

Typical uses of Mg:

 Aircraft components (strength to weight ratio)  Automobile wheels  Racing frames  Lightweight structural parts

Alloying elements:
      Aluminum Bismuth Copper Tin Lead Iron


Handling Magnesium
 Keep chips coarse  Avoid chip accumulation, mixing with other material  Avoid water, water-based coolants (explosive)

50

Nickel Alloys


Properties:
 Corrosion resistance  Heat resistance

Typical uses of Ni:

 Plating of electronics (pure form)  Thermocouples  Alloying element
   

Alloy forms:
    Monel K-Monel R-Monel Inconel

Naval Brass Steel toughness Steel corrosion resistance Steel heat resistance

51

Effect of Temperature on Properties

Figure 3.15 General effect of temperature on strength and ductility.

52

Hot Hardness
Ability of a material to retain hardness at elevated temperatures

Figure 3.16 Hot hardness - typical hardness as a function of temperature for several materials.

53

Superalloys


High-performance alloys for strength and resistance to surface degradation at high service temperatures Many superalloys contain substantial amounts of three or more metals, Commercially important because they are very expensive
See Tables 6.15 & 6.16

54

Why Superalloys are Important



 

High temperature performance is excellent tensile strength, hot hardness, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance at very elevated temperatures Operating temperatures often in the vicinity of 1100rC (2000rF) Applications: gas turbines - jet and rocket engines, steam turbines, and nuclear power plants - systems in which operating efficiency increases with higher temperatures

55

Refractory Metals


Metals capable of enduring high temperatures - maintaining high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures Most important refractory metals:
 Molybdenum  Tungsten

Other refractory metals are niobium and tantalum (used in capacitors)

56

Tungsten


Properties: highest melting point among metals, one of the densest, also the stiffest (highest modulus of elasticity) and hardest of all pure metals Applications typically characterized by high operating temperatures: filament wire in incandescent light bulbs, parts for rocket and jet engines, and electrodes for arc welding Also widely used as an element in tool steels, heat resistant alloys, and tungsten carbide

57

Molybdenum
  

58

Properties: high melting point, stiff, strong, good high temperature strength Used as a pure metal (99.9+% Mo) and alloyed Applications: heat shields, heating elements, electrodes for resistance welding, dies for high temperature work (e.g., die casting molds), and parts for rocket and jet engines Also widely used as an alloying ingredient in steels and superalloys

Precious Metals


Gold, platinum, and silver

 Also called noble metals because chemically inert  Available in limited supply

 

Widely used in jewelry and similar applications that exploit their high value Properties: high density, good ductility, high electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance, and moderate melting temperatures

59

Shaping, Assembly, and Finishing Processes for Metals



 

60

Metals are shaped by all of the basic processes: casting, powder metallurgy, deformation, and material removal In addition, metal parts are joined to form assemblies by welding, brazing and soldering, and mechanical fastening Heat treating to enhance properties Finishing processes (e.g., electroplating and painting) to improve appearance and/or to provide corrosion protection

You should have learned:



How we can modify mechanical properties in metals?

    Alloying Annealing Allotropic transformation Precipitation hardening

Different types of metal alloys and how they are used? Assignment #1

61

Next Time
 

How do we shape materials?

 Secondary operations  Orthogonal machining  The Merchant Equation Material Removal

The fundamentals of metal cutting (Chapter 21)

62