Chapter 6

Skeletal System Overview: Osseous Tissue and Skeletal Structure Lindsey L. Jenny, PhD

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Introduction, p1 Medical Morphemes:

chondro- = cartilage osteo- = bone

Osteology the study of the human skeletal system

Histology study bone as a tissue Gross Anatomy study bones as organs Physiology - study of regulation of bone tissue Physical Anthropology- uses bones to study life experiences of individuals

Components of the Skeletal System, p1 Bones are composed of all four primary tissue types, thus an organ Cartilage located b/t bones Ligaments connects bones at joints Nerves and vessels nourish & maintain bone tissue

Composition of bone tissue, p2

70% Inorganic
(Hydroxyapatite crystals) Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) Hard, brittle calcium mineral salts, 98% of bodys Ca Accounts for 2/3 of bone weight

30% Organic
Osteoid newly formed bone matrix prior to calcification, 90% is collagen, very flexible Cells Account for only ~3% weight of bone tissue

What happens to bone if you remove the inorganic component? the organic component?

Bone Cells
3 types of bone cells
Osteoblasts build / deposit new bone by secreting osteoid Osteocytes osteoblasts that become trapped in the osteoid reside in small spaces called lacunae, act as control centers to maintain bone quality Osteoclasts break down and absorb old bone Osteoblast

Osteocyte

Osteoclasts

Figure 6.6 (modified)

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs) in Bone

Osteoclasts resorb mature bone leaving a cavity

Mature Bone

= Osteoclast

= Osteoblast

= Osteocyte

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs) in Bone

Osteoblasts move in and start secreting osteoid to form new bone Mature Bone

= Osteoclast

= Osteoblast

= Osteocyte

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs) in Bone

Some osteoblasts get surrounded by osteoid (new bone) Mature Bone Osteoid

= Osteoclast

= Osteoblast

= Osteocyte

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs) in Bone

These trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes and communicate with the osteoblasts still making bone to lay down bone where it is needed Mature Bone Osteoid

= Osteoclast

= Osteoblast

= Osteocyte

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs) in Bone

Result in the formation of new Haversian systems (osteons)

Mature Bone Osteoid-New Bone

= Osteoclast

= Osteoblast

= Osteocyte

BMUs results in Haversian systems

Figure 6.8

Properties of bone, p3
Strong difficult to break, but also lightweight Tensile strength - Poor
Tolerates some stretching & twisting; from collagen

Compressive strength - High

Withstands compression but NOT stretching & twisting; from mineral salts

Rigid resists compression (bending) but not stretching/twisting Highly vascular good blood supply Impermeable - substances do not diffuse through bone tissue must travel thru vascular channels

Functions of the skeletal system 1) Support and movement 2) Encasement and protection
Examples?

Functions of the skeletal system 3) Hemopoiesis

Production of blood cells in bone marrow

4) Lipid storage in bone marrow 5) Mineral balance and storage

Balance levels of Calcium by hormone action and physical activity Calcitonin hormone released from thyroid gland production of new bone PTH hormone released from parathyroid gland destruction of bone

Two main types of bone tissue, p3

(Figures 6.4 and 6.8) 1) Cortical bone
composed of compact bone or Haversian bone Relatively dense, forms the outer layer of all bones

2) Spongy bone
a.k.a. cancellous bone or trabecular bone Very porous, found inside bones, on the ends of long bones Affected by osteoporosis

These two types of bone differ with respect to their function, metabolism, and mechanical properties.

Cortical and Spongy Bone

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.8 Components of Bone

Bone Types, p4
Based on shape, 6 types 1) Long bones
Characteristics: longer than they are wide, tubular, all limb bones are long bones

Architectural features of a typical long bone Diaphysis (shaft) mainly compact bone Metaphysis flared region Epiphysis
proximal & distal ends; contains spongy bone in adults

-physis growth; epiphyseal plate

Long Bone Features

Figure 6.4 Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

Long Bone Features cont.

Periosteum
outer covering of bone cortex 2 layers: 1) fibrous support; 2) cellular - growth

Endosteum
Inner lining of hollow bones; cellular function

Medullary cavity (marrow cavity)

Hollow center of long bones Red marrow produces blood cells; found in spongy bone of adults children have red marrow in all bones Yellow marrow stores lipids (fats); found only in long bones of adults

Nutrient foramen
openings in the cortex for blood vessels

Periosteum & Endosteum; Marrow Cavity

Figure 6.5 Periosteum and Endosteum

Figure 6.14 Arterial Supply to a Mature Bone

Classification of Bones, p 5
2) Flat Bones Characteristics: spongy bone sandwiched between two layers of cortical bone Examples: Skull bones, Ribs, Sternum 3) Short Bones Characteristics: boxlike, shell of cortical bone surrounding spongy bone Examples: Wrist bones (carpals) & Ankle bones (tarsals)
Figure 6.3 Classification of Bone by Shape

Other Bone Types

4) Irregular bones
Characteristics: complex, irregularly shaped bones with combined characteristics of other bone types Examples: Vertebrae & Facial bones Characteristics: bones that develop within a muscle tendon; generally variable in number Examples: Patella & misc. bone in wrist Characteristics: islands of bone that develop within cranial sutures - variable

5) Sesamoid bones

6) Wormian or sutural bones

I Clicker Time The black arrow is pointing to the A. Diaphysis B. Proximal epiphysis C. Distal epiphysis D. Metaphysis

I clicker Osteoblasts: A. deposit new bone B. remove old bone C. act as communication centers

I Clicker What type of bone is the patella? A. long B. flat C. short D. sesamoid E. wormian/sutural

Growth & Development of the Skeletal System, p5 Osteogenesis

Production of new bone

Calcification
Process of deposition and hardening of calcium salts in bone and teeth

Ossification
the replacement of cartilage or mesenchymal (embryonic) tissue with bone

There are two general types of ossification:

1) Intramembranous ossification 2) Endochondral ossification

Fetal Bone Development

Figure 7.34

Intramembranous Ossification
Intra- = within Highly vascular membrane spongy bone formed in membrane Over time, compact bone forms on the outer surface while spongy bone develops in the middle Examples: flat bones of the skull

Intra-membranous Growth
1. Ossification centers form within the mesenchyme a. Osteoblasts develop and begin to secrete osteoid

Mesenchymal cell Ossification center

Osteoid Osteoblast

Intra-membranous Growth
2. Bone matrix (Osteoid) calcifies (turns to bone) trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes

Osteoblast

Osteocyte

Newly calcified bone matrix

Intra-membranous Growth
3. Newly calcified bone is unorganized and immature- called woven bone. Periosteum begins to form around woven bone.

Mesenchyme condensing to form the periosteum Blood vessel Trabecula of woven bone

Intra-membranous Growth
4. Over time, woven bone is replaced by compact bone and spongy bone

Periosteum

Compact bone

Spongy bone

Endochondral Ossification
Endo- = Inside Formation of bone within a cartilage model Mesenchymal cells form a Cartilaginous model (anlage) ossifies as bone replaces cartilage Most bones of the body are formed by this process, especially long bones

Endochondral Growth Stage 1

#1 Fetal hyaline cartilage model develops
(8-12 weeks in utero)

Perichondrium

Hyaline cartilage

Endochondral Growth Stage 2

#2 Cartilage model calcifies forming a bone collar around diaphysis of bone
cartilage cells become larger and lose their nutrients and die- creating a space inside the model outer layer of cartilage is invaded by osteoblasts and becomes periosteum Deteriorating
cartilage matrix Developing periosteum

Periosteal bone collar

Hyaline cartilage

Endochondral Growth Stage 3

#3 Primary ossification center forms in diaphysis (appear by 12th week fetal development)
Capillaries and osteoblasts form a periosteal bud that extends into the cartilage shaft Calcified cartilage acts a template for new bone cells Starts at center of diaphysis and moves out in both directions

Blood vessel of periosteal bud

Primary ossification center

Endochondral Growth Stage 4

#4 Secondary Ossification Centers appear (beginning around birth)
hyaline cartilage in epiphysis calcifies, replaced with bone cells Epipyseal blood vessel In the Diaphysis
Medullary cavity forms in diaphysis Compact bone develops in diaphysis
Developing compact bone Medullary cavity

Secondary ossification centers Calcified cartilage

Endochondral Growth Stage 5

#5 Bone replaces most of the cartilage cartilage is present at:
articular surfaces epiphyseal plates (to allow for growth)
Epipyseal plate Articular cartilage Spongy bone

Compact bone Medullary cavity Periosteum

Epiphyseal plate

Endochondral Growth Stage 6

#6 Fusion of primary and secondary centers, growth in length stops
most epiphyseal plates fuse between 10-25 years
Epiphyseal line (remnant of epiphyseal plate)

Compact bone

Medullary cavity

Periosteum

Spongy bone Epiphyseal line Articular cartilage

Centers of Ossification, p6
Primary centers
First part of the bone to ossify, typically occurs about the 8th fetal week for most bones Located in the middle of the shaft 806 ossification centers in 11th fetal week; 450 at birth

Secondary centers
Develop after birth anywhere from 2 months to 18 years These secondary centers are the epiphyses Most bones have multiple secondary centers

Primary and Secondary Centers

Fused b/t 18-23

Fused b/t 17-20

p6
Union/fusion of primary centers with secondary centers The growth plates closes, uniting the epiphysis to the diaphysis in a long bone This occurs at regular sequence from infancy early adulthood This pattern allows physical anthropologists to age juvenile skeletons very precisely Females mature skeletally 1-2 years before males Once fusion occurs there is no more growth in length!

 Clinical Correlate: It is essential to know the age of an individual when interpreting X-rays, so that a line of fusion is not misinterpreted as a fracture or vice versa.

Timing of epiphyseal union EHAKWS

Elbow
14 to 18 years

Hip
14 to 18 years

S-6 W-5

K-4

Ankle
16 to 19 years

E-1

H-2

A-3

Knee
17 to 20 years

Wrist
18 to 20 years

What is final epiphysis to close?

Shoulder
14 to 20 years
(Stewart, 1979)

Review What is bone composed of? What do the following bone cells do?
Osteoblasts Osteoclasts Osteocytes

Review How are intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification different?

In general, what types of bones ossify from

Intramembranous Endochondral

Review For the exam, you should be able to put the stages of endochondral growth in order.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Review What is a primary center of ossification? How is it different from a secondary center of ossification? For the exam, know the general order of epiphyseal fusion
S-6 W-5 K-4

E-1

H-2

A-3

Can activity affect epiphyseal fusion?

Medieval English warship the Mary Rose sank off the coast of Portsmouth in 1545 with a crew of 415
Skeletons of the crew recovered

13.6% had unfused acromion epiphyses Suggested that these individuals were archers Began training @ 6 years Stress of training prevented fusion?

Stirland and Waldron, 1997. Evidence for Activity Related Markers in the Vertebrae of the Crew of the Mary Rose. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:329-335

Bone changes over a lifetime, p7

What is bone remodeling? Continuous process of turning over bone through lifetime Osteon (aka Haversian systems) functional unit of bone; microscopic Resorption osteoclasts destroy old bone Deposition osteoblasts make new bone Remodelling maintains structural integrity Influenced by hormones & physical activity

Osteons

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

Microscopic Age Determination (add to c-pack)

Fig 8.10

As age increases, so does number of Osteons/Haversian Systems Can be used by physical anthropologists to age skeletal remains Also used to ID bone as human or nonhuman

How do bones increase in length

rowth occurs at the epiphyseal plate Cartilage is replaced by bone at each end of the bony shaft a longer shaft This stops at skeletal maturity after puberty ~18-20 years

The V Principle p7
Important concept for growth of facial skeleton
bone is resorbed on the outer surface bone is deposited on the inner surface example: Mandible widens as it grows

+ + + + + -

Adult Mandible from Butt Road Cemetery Photo: Lindsey Jenny

After Figure 29 from Orthodontic Diagnosis, Rakosi et al. 1993

How do bones increase in diameter?

Growth in width (Appositional Growth) at Periosteum osteoblasts deposit new bone at Endosteum osteoclasts destroy bone Stops at ~20-25 years

Figure 6.13 Appositional Bone Growth

Degenerative Changes of Bone, p7

Bone density decreases with age after 35 y/o
Osteopenia normal age-related decrease in bone density Osteoporosis pathological decrease in bone density

Normal bone density - within 1 S.D. of mean bone mineral density of a 25 y/o female Osteopenia b/t 1 and 2.5 S.D. lower than mean Osteoporosis greater than 2.5 S.D. lower then mean
Dramatically increases fracture risk

p. 167

Degenerative Changes of Bone, p7

3 factors contribute to osteoporosis Genetics insufficient dietary intake of calcium and Vitamin D insufficient weight-bearing physical activity (e.g. walking, resistance training, but NOT swimming)

Clinical View, p. 167

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis can predispose a patient to:
Hip Fractures most occur at neck of femur, ~90% are related to osteoporosis (>60 yrs)
resulting immobility leads to (5-20%) increase in death and decreases the chance of living independently

Wedge Fractures of Vertebra

leads to abnormal thoracic curvature ("hunchback") can impinge nerves entering/exiting spinal cord resulting in pain and loss of motor function

Bone Injury and Repair Steps, p8

Figure 6.16 Fracture Repair

Terminology of bone surface features, p9 Bony projections/processes; bumps

Function: attachment sites for tendons and ligaments Categories
trochanterlarge, rough projection tuberositysmaller, rough projection tuberclesmall, rounded projection spinepointed projection linelow ridge crestprominent ridge

Examples of Bony Projections

Figure 6.17 Bone Markings

Bone Openings and Depressions

Openings: allow the passage of vessels and nerves Depressions: house/protect a structure like the pituitary gland allow a full range of motion at a joint like the olecranon fossa of the elbow. Categories foramen (pl. foramina) a hole which transmits vessels or nerves fossa (pl. fossae) a shallow, rounded depression where something sits or projects into Groove / sulcus a long, narrow depression canal a longer enclosed passageway through a bone which transmits vessels or nerves alveolus the socket into which a tooth fits (found only in the maxilla and mandible)

Articular features These features are associated with joints

Facet a small, flat articular surface; where 2 or more bones touch Condyle a smooth, rounded articular process; at the ends of some of the long bones Head expanded articular region of a bone; ex. femur & humerus Neck a constricted region that separates the head from the major portion of the bone

Examples of Bony Features, F7.33, 8.11

Specific Examples of Head Neck Facet Condyle Fossa Groove Tubercle

The Typical Adult Human Skeleton, p10

206 separate bones Some are paired R. & L. copy Some are unpaired usually in midline Axial Skeleton = 80 bones (Figure 7.1) The central axis of the body Skeletal elements
skull and associated bones = 22 + 7 bones ribs = 24 bones sternum = 1 bone vertebral column = 26 bones

Figure 7.1

Appendicular Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton = 126 bones (all paired) pectoral girdle = 4 bones upper limb = 60 bones pelvic girdle = 2 bones lower limb = 60 bones

Figure 8.1 Appendicular Skeleton

Skeletal System Checklist

Study characteristics, properties, and functions of bone Know different types of bones (Figure 6.3) Study Figures 6.4c, 6.17- These could appear on the exam Spend some time looking at Figures 6.10 and 6.11, Compare/contrast ossification types Know the order of stages for endochondral ossification Know examples of each ossification type Know the general order of epiphyseal fusion (no need for age ranges) Know steps of fracture repair Be familiar with terminology on pp11-12 of coursepack Typical adult skeleton (p13) How many bones are there? How is the skeleton divided up? (Figures 7.1 and 8.1) Clinical Correlates- osteoporosis, interpreting x-rays based on age

HERE ARE YOUR NEXT STEPS

1) Review your lecture note packet and power point slides 2) As needed, review the textbook images, tables, figures etc. to fill in gaps and reinforce knowledge 3) As needed, review pertinent pages in Anatomy Coloring Book. 4) start working on the course pack's Sample Questions (answers at end of coursepack) 5) Go to Connect and complete any available practice assignments and go to LearnSmart and complete chapter 6 module

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