POLITEKNIK SULTAN ABDUL HALIM MUADZAM SHAH BANDAR DARULAMAN, 06000 JITRA, KEDAH

C3008 GEOTECHNIC

PROCESS OF IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

NAME : NUR SHAHIDAH BINTI ABU BAKAR REG NUMBER : 03DKA09 F1039 COURSE/SEMESTER : DKA3A DATE SUBMIT : 20 OCTOBER 2010 LECTURER : EN NOR HAZIZI BIN ABD MUTHALIB

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION OF SOIL
SOIL FORMING FACTORS

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVE SOILCHARACTERISTIC

GEOTEXTILE GEOMEMBRAN GEOGRID GEONET GEOCOMPOSITE

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL SUITABLE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS TYPES OF SOIL FAILURE
SLOPE FAILURE FAILURE DURING EXCAVATION SHALLOW FOUNDATION FAILURE DEEP FOUNDATION FAILURE

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS
SEPARATOR REINFORCEMENT FILTRATION DRAINAGE CONTAINMENT

CONCLUSION TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION

REFFERRENCES

INTRODUCTION OF SOIL
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics . It is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental processes that include weathering and erosion. Soil differs from its parent rock due to interactions between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the biosphere. It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituents that are in solid, gaseous and aqueous states.

INTRODUCTION OF SOIL

Soil particles pack loosely, forming a soil structure filled with pore spaces. These pores contain soil solution (liquid) and air (gas). Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three state system. Most soils have a density between 1 and 2 g/cm. Soil is also known as earth: it is the substance from which our planet takes its name. Little of the soil composition of planet Earth is older than the Tertiary and most no older than the Pleistocene . In engineering, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose rock material.

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

Soil formation, or pedogenesis , is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological, and anthropogenic processes on soil parent material. Soil genesis involves processes that develop layers or horizons in the soil profile. These processes involve additions, losses, transformations and translocations of material that compose the soil. Minerals derived from weathered rocks undergo changes that cause the formation of secondary minerals and other compounds that are variably soluble in water, these constituents are moved (translocated) from one area of the soil to other areas by water and animal activity. The alteration and movement of materials within soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons.
SOIL FORMING FACTORS

The weathering of bedrock produces the parent material from which soils form. An example of soil development from bare rock occurs on recent lava flows in warm regions under heavy and very frequent rainfall. In such climates, plants become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrientbearing water which carries, for example, dissolved minerals and guano.

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

The developing plant roots, themselves or associated with mycorrhizal fungi, gradually break up the porous lava and organic matter soon accumulates. But even before it does, the predominantly porous broken lava in which the plant roots grow can be considered a soil. How the soil "life" cycle proceeds is influenced by at least five classic soil forming factors that are dynamically intertwined in shaping the way soil is developed, they include: parent material, regional climate, topography, biotic potential and the passage of time.

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

PARENT MATERIAL
The material from which soils form is called parent material. It includes: weathered primary bedrock; secondary material transported from other locations, e.g. colluvium and alluvium; deposits that are already present but mixed or altered in other ways - old soil formations, organic material including peat or alpine humus; and anthropogenic materials, like landfill or mine waste. Few soils form directly from the breakdown of the underlying rocks they develop on. These soils are often called residual soils, and have the same general chemistry as their parent rocks. Most soils derive from materials that have been transported from other locations by wind, water and gravity.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

Some of these materials may have moved many miles or only a few feet. Windblown material called loess is common in the Midwest of North America and in Central Asia and other locations. Glacial till is a component of many soils in the northern and southern latitudes and those formed near large mountains; till is the product of glacial ice moving over the ground. The ice can break rock and larger stones into smaller pieces, it also can sort material into different sizes. As glacial ice melts, the melt water also moves and sorts material, and deposits it varying distances from its origin. The deeper sections of the soil profile may have materials that are relatively unchanged from when they were deposited by water, ice or wind.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

Weathering is the first stage in the transforming of parent material into soil material. In soils forming from bedrock, a thick layer of weathered material called saprolite may form. Saprolite is the result of weathering processes that include: hydrolysis (the replacement of a minerals cations with hydrogen ions), chelation from organic compounds, hydration (the absorption of water by minerals), solution of minerals by water, and physical processes that include freezing and thawing or wetting and drying.The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock material, plus physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, plus the rate and type of weathering, transforms it into different soil materials.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

CLIMATE
Soil formation greatly depends on the climate, and soils from different climate zones show distinctive characteristics . Temperature and moisture affect weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand and other particles, especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover. The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil, aiding in the development of different soil profiles. Seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations affect the effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material and affect soil dynamics. The cycle of freezing and thawing is an effective mechanism to break up rocks and other consolidated materials. Temperature and precipitation rates affect biological activity, rates of chemical reactions and types of vegetation cover.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation (see soil biomantle and stonelayer). Animals and microorganisms mix soils to form burrows and pores allowing moisture and gases to seep into deeper layers. In the same way, plant roots open channels in the soils, especially plants with deep taproots which can penetrate many meters through the different soil layers to bring up nutrients from deeper in the soil. Plants with fibrous roots that spread out near the soil surface, have roots that are easily decomposed, adding organic matter. Micro-organisms, including fungi and bacteria, affect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients. Humans can impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover; this removal promotes erosion. They can also mix the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as lessweathered material is mixed with and diluting the more developed upper layers. Some soils may contain up to one million species of microbes per gram, most of those species being unknown, making soil the most abundant ecosystem on Earth.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways. It can prevent erosion from rain or surface runoff. It shades soils, keeping them cooler and slowing evaporation of soil moisture, or it can cause soils to dry out by transpiration. Plants can form new chemicals that break down or build up soil particles. Vegetation depends on climate, land form topography and biological factors. Soil factors such as soil density, depth, chemistry, pH, temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can grow in a given location. Dead plants, dropped leaves and stems of plants fall to the surface of the soil and decompose. There, organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers; these organic compounds become part of the soil formation process, ultimately shaping the type of soil formed.
CHAACTERISTIC OF SOIL

TIME
Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above factors as they develop soil. Over time, soils evolve features dependent on the other forming factors, and soil formation is a time-responsive process dependent on how the other factors interplay with each other. Soil is always changing. For example, recently-deposited material from a flood exhibits no soil development because there has not been enough time for soil-forming activities. The soil surface is buried, and the formation process begins again for this soil. The long periods over which change occurs and its multiple influences mean that simple soils are rare, resulting in the formation of soil horizons. While soil can achieve relative stability in properties for extended periods, the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it vulnerable to erosion.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation, most soil cycles are long and productive. Soil-forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence, even on stable landscapes that are longenduring, some for millions of years. Materials are deposited on top and materials are blown or washed away from the surface. With additions, removals and alterations, soils are always subject to new conditions. Whether these are slow or rapid changes depend on climate, landscape position and biological activity.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL SUITABLE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

The term Soil means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be: Built on: foundations to buildings, bridges. Built in: tunnels, culverts, basements. Built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams. Supported: retaining walls, quays.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL SUITABLE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORK

Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level).

Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: Strength, Stiffness, Permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL SUITABLE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORK

I.

Strength - In very simple terms, the strength of soil is the maximum shear stress (tf) it can sustain, or the shear stress acting on a shear slip surface along which it is failing. There are three distinct strengths: peak, critical (or ultimate) and residual. Shearing may be simple or direct. Stiffness - Susceptibility to distortion or volume change under load.

II.

III. Permeability - The property which allows the flow of water through a soil. The constant average discharge velocity (v) of water passing through soil when the hydraulic gradient (i) is 1.0; defined by Darcys law: v = k.i
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOIL SUITABLE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING WORK

SLOPE FAILURE
A slope failure is phenomenon that a slope collapses abruptly due to weakened self-retainability of the earth under the influence of a rainfall or an earthquake. Because of sudden collapse of slope, many people fail to escape from it if it occurs near a residential area, thusresulting in a higher rate of fatalities.
TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

RETAINING WALL WORKS

Concrete retaining walls are built on the lower part of a slope to directly suppress a collapse of that part and also to check coming-down collapsed soil and stop it before houses.

TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

SOLDIER PILES AND LAGGING WORKS

Steel piles are driven into a slope to restrain the collapse of the surface soil layer. Lagging is placed between piles to prevent downward movement of eroded soil. This construction method can be applied not to destroy existing vegetation.

TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

GRATING CRIB WORKS

Concrete frames are laid on a slope, within which plants grow to protect the slope from weathering and erosion. It is also possible to directly suppress slope collapse by using the frames in combination with ground anchors, etc., or to allow trees remaining on the slope to be retained by adjusting the arrangement of the frames.

TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

FAILURE DURING EXCAVATION

Tension cracks can cause sliding, sluffing, or toppling Unsupported excavation can cause bulging in the vertical face Use support systems to keep nearby buildings, walls stable Shoring Bracing Underpinning

TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

SHALLOW FAILURE
General shear failure when the pressure is raised, plastic equilibrium is reached, the soil around the base gradually spread downward and out. plastic equilibrium in the soil is fully formed on the surface failed perlambungan surface occurs on both sides of the base Local Shear Failure large compression occurs in the soil under the foundation and just apply some plastic equilibrium. a slight perlambungan at the soil surface and compaction at the bottom of the base This situation can cause the sediments at the base.
TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

Punching shear failure occurs when there is compression of the soil at the base and does not apply perlambungan land on the ground. This situation cause the deposition at the foundation.

TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

Deep foundation
Foundation failure caused by many factors, they are:
Evaporation Hot and dry conditions and extended periods of drought will cause soils to pull away from foundations. Settlement usually occurs showing cracks throughout the structure in concrete and drywall. Transpiration The removal of moisture from the soils caused by plant and tree roots around or under structures will cause soil shrinkage and settlement of your foundation. Poor Soil condition Expansion and/or contraction of poor soils contribute to foundation failures.
TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

 Poor Soil Preparation In most cases, cut and fill areas are improperly compacted causing settlement of the structure. Poor Foundation Construction Insufficient steel in the concrete could contribute to movement in foundations. Plumbing Water from leaky plumbing is often a major contributor to foundation problems. For more information on water problems, click here. Drainage Water that is not drained away from structures will lead to excess mosture build up. Moisture could then erode soils and cause settling of structures.
TYPE OF SOIL FAILURE

COMPACTION
Compaction (geology) refers to the process by which a sediment progressively loses its porosity due to the effects of loading. This forms part of the process of lithification . When a layer of sediment is originally deposited, it contains an open framework of particles with the pore space being usually filled with water. As more sediment is deposited above the layer, the effect of the increased loading is to increase the particle-toparticle stresses resulting in porosity reduction primarily through a more efficient packing of the particles and to a lesser extent through elastic compression and pressure solution. The initial porosity of a sediment depends on its lithology . Mudstones start with porosities of >60%, sandstones typically ~40% and carbonates sometimes as high as 70%. Results from hydrocarbon exploration wells show clear porosity reduction trends with depth.
TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

In sediments compacted under self-weight, especially in sedimentary basins ,the porosity profiles often show an exponential decrease, called Athy's law as first shown by Athy in 1930. A mathematical analytical solution was obtained by Fowler and Yang to show the theoretical basis for Athy's law. This behaviour can be easily observed in experiments and used as a good approximation to many real data.

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

CONSOLIDATION
Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Karl von Terzaghi, soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The soil which had its load removed is considered to be overconsolidated. This is the case for soils which have previously had glaciers on them. The highest stress that it has been subjected to is termed the preconsolidation stress. The over consolidation ratio or OCR is defined as the highest stress experienced divided by the current stress. A soil which is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be normally consolidated and to have an OCR of one. A soil could be considered underconsolidated immediately after a new load is applied but before the excess pore water pressure has had time to dissipate.
TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted. Sometimes consolidation can take years. This is especially true in saturated clays because their hydraulic conductivity is extremely low, and this causes the water to take an exceptionally long time to drain out of the soil. While drainage is occurring, the pore water pressure is greater than normal because it is carrying part of the applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles).

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

CONSOLIDATION ANALYSIS
SPRING ANALOGY The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a spring, a container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure itself of the soil, and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil.

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

 The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil) A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure) As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure) After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION This method assumes consolidation occurs in only onedimension. Laboratory data is used to construct a plot of strain or void ratio versus effective stress where the effective stress axis is on a logarithmic scale. The plot's slope is the compression index or recompession index. The equation for consolidation settlement of a normally consolidated soil can then be determined to be:

where c is the settlement due to consolidation. Cc is the compression index. e0 is the initial void ratio. H is the height of the soil. zf is the final vertical stress. z0 is the initial vertical stress.

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

Cc can be replaced by Cr (the recompression index) for use in overconsolidated soils where the final effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress. When the final effective stress is greater than the preconsolidation stress, the two equations must be used in combination to model both the recompression portion and the virgin compression portion of the consolidation process, as follows:

where zc is the preconsolidation stress of the soil

TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION Secondary consolidation is the compression of soil that takes place after primary consolidation. Secondary consolidation is caused by creep, viscous behavior of the clay-water system, compression of organic matter, and other processes. In sand, settlement caused by secondary compression is negligible, but in peat, it is very significant . Secondary consolidation is given by the formula

Where H0 is the height of the consolidating medium e0 is the initial void ratio Ca is the secondary compression index
TECHNIC USE IN IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics is the term used to describe a range of generally polymeric products used to solve civil engineering problems. The term is generally regarded to encompass eight main product categories: geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, g eosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells (cellular confinement) and geocomposites. The polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Properly formulated, however, they can also be used in exposed applications..

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and private development applications including roads, airfields,railroads, embankments, retaini ng structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion control, sediment control, landfill liners, landfill covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEOTEXTILE
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which, when used in association with soil, have the ability to separate, filter, reinforce, protect, or drain. Typically made from polypropylene or polyester, geotextile fabrics come in three basic forms: woven (looks like mail bag sacking), needle punched (looks like felt), or heat bonded (looks like ironed felt). Geotextile composites have been introduced and products such as geogrids and meshes have been developed. Overall, these materials are referred to as geosynthetics and each configuration-geonets, geogrids and others-can yield benefits in geotechnical and environmental engineering design.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

APPLICATION OF GEOTEXTILE
Geotextiles and related products have many applications and currently support many civil engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, bank protection, coastal engineering and construction site silt fences. Usually geotextiles are placed at the tension surface to strengthen the soil. Geotextiles are also used for sand dune armoring to protect upland coastal property from storm surge, wave action and flooding. A large sand-filled container (SFC) within the dune system prevents storm erosion from proceeding beyond the SFC. Using a sloped unit rather than a single tube eliminates damaging scour.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and swales. Geotextiles can improve soil strength at a lower cost than conventional soil nailing. In addition, geotextiles allow planting on steep slopes, further securing the slope.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

Geotextiles have been used to protect the fossil hominid footprints of Laetoli in Tanzania from erosion, rain, and tree roots. In building demolition, geotextile fabrics in combination with steel wire fencing can contain explosive debris. Coir (coconut fiber) geotextiles are a popular solution for erosion control, slope stabilization and bioengineering, due to the fabric's substantial mechanical strength.Coir geotextiles last approximately 3 to 5 years depending on the fabric weight. The product degrades into humus, enriching the soil.[

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEOMEMBRANE
Geomembranes are a kind of geosynthetic material. They are impermeable membranes used widely as cut-offs and liners. Until recent years, geomembranes were used mostly as canal and pond liners. One of the largest current applications is at landfill sites for the containment of hazardous or municipal wastes and their leachates. In many of these applications geomembranes are employed with geotextile or mesh underliners which reinforce or protect the more flexible geomembrane whilst also acting as an escape route for gases and leachates generated in certain wastes.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GEOMEMBRANE

The physical material properties of geomembranes include thickness, density, water vapor transmission, solvent vapor transmission, and melt flow index. The thickness can be measured by using a standard thickness test in which a thickness gauge under twenty kPa is applied for five seconds. All densities for PVC and polyethylene (PE) are less than one, so it is reasonable find the mass per unit volume instead of the density for most geomembranes.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

The water vapor transmission is the amount of water that can permeate the geomembrane. The solvent vapor index is the measurement of the flow of vapors besides water vapor through the geomembrane liner. The melt flow index is the measurement of the fluidity of the molten geomembrane. It is measured by heating the polymer until it is liquid. Once it has been heated, it is then pushed through a small orifice under a constant load for ten minutes. The higher the melt flow index is, the lower the density.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

CHARACTERISTIC OF GEOMEMBRANCE
Each type of geomembrane material has different characteristics which affect installation procedures, lifespan and performance. For example, PVC geomembranes are very flexible and as a result can conform to uneven surfaces without becoming punctured. EPDM rubber is highly flexible and has excellent UV and weathering characteristics, but is not suitable for use in long term contact with oils and hydrocarbons. LDPE, on the other hand, is very susceptible to UV radiation, and therefore should not be used in applications where it will be exposed or else it will become brittle and fragile. HDPE has excellent chemical resistance, but is inflexible and suffers from environmental stress cracking and thermal stresses.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEOGRID
The development of methods of preparing relatively rigid polymeric materials by tensile drawing, in a sense "cold working," raised the possibility that such materials could be used in the reinforcement of soils for walls, steep slopes, roadway bases and foundation soils. Used as such, the major function of the resulting geogrids is in the area of reinforcement. This area, as with many other geosynthetics, is very active, with a number of different products, materials, configurations, etc., making up today's geogrid market. The key feature of all geogrids is that the openings between the adjacent sets of longitudinal and transverse ribs, called apertures, are large enough to allow for soil strike-through from one side of the geogrid to the other.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

The ribs of some geogrids are often quite stiff compared to the fibers of geotextiles. As will be discussed later, not only is rib strength important, but junction strength is also important. The for this is that in anchorage situations the soil strike-through within the apertures bears against the transverse ribs, which transmits the load to the longitudinal ribs via the junctions. The junctions are, of course, where the longitudinal and transverse ribs meet and are connected. They are sometimes called nodes.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

Currently there are three categories of geogrids. The first, and original, geogrids (called unitized or homogeneous types) were invented by Dr Frank Brian Mercer in the United Kingdom at Netlon, Ltd., and were brought in 1982 to North America by the Tensar Corporation. A conference in 1984 was helpful in bringing geogrids to the engineering design community. A similar type of drawn geogrid which originated in Italy by Tenax is also available, as are products by new manufacturers in Asia. The second category of geogrids are more flexible, textile-like geogrids using bundles of polyethylene coated polyester fibres as the reinforcing component.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

They were first developed by ICI Linear Composites LTD in the United Kingdom around 1980. This led to the development of polyester yarn geogrids made on textile weaving machinery. In this process hundreds of continuous fibers are gathered together to form yarns which are woven into longitudinal and transverse ribs with large open spaces between. The cross-overs are joined by knitting or intertwining before the entire unit is protected by a subsequent coating. Bitumen, latex or PVC are the usual coating materials. Geosynthetics within this group are manufactured by many companies having various trademarked products.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

There are possibly as many as 25 companies manufacturing coated yarn-type polyester geogrids on a worldwide basis. The third category of geogrids are made by laser or ultrasonically bonding together polyester or polypropylene rods or straps in a gridlike pattern. Two manufacturers currently make such geogrids. The geogrid area is extremely active not only in manufacturing new products, but also in providing significant technical information to aid the design engineer.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEONET

Geonets, called "geospacers" by some, constitute another specialized segment within the geosynthetics area. They are formed by continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another. When the ribs are opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a netlike configuration. Their design function is completelyin the in-plane drainage area where they are used to convey all types of liquids.

GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

GEOCOMPOSITE
The basic philosophy behind geocomposite materials is to combine the best features of different materials in such a way that specific applications are addressed in the optimal manner and at minimum cost. Thus, the benefit/cost ratio is maximized. Such geocomposites will generally be geosynthetic materials, but not always. In some cases it may be more advantageous to use a nonsynthetic material with a geosynthetic one for optimum performance and/or least cost As seen in the following, the number of possibilities is huge the only limits being one's ingenuity and imagination.In considering the following geocomposites, keep in mind that there are five basic functions that can be provided: separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage, and containment.
GEOSYNTHETICS IN WORK TO IMPROVING SOIL CHARACTERISTIC

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS
The juxtaposition of the various types of geosynthetics just described with the primary function that the material is called upon to serve allows for the creation of an organizational matrix for geosynthetics; see Table 1. In essence, this matrix is the scorecard for understanding the entire geosynthetic field and its design related methodology. In Table 1, the primary function that each geosynthetic can be called upon to serve is seen. Note that these are primary functions and in many cases (if not most) cases there are secondary functions, and perhaps tertiary ones as well. For example, a geotextile placed on soft soil will usually be designed on the basis of its reinforcement capability, but separation and filtration might certainly be secondary and tertiary considerations. As another example, a geomembrane is obviously used for its containment capability, but separation will always be a secondary function. The greatest variability from a manufacturing and materials viewpoint is the category of geocomposites. The primary function will depend entirely upon what is actually created, manufactured, and installed.
FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Table 1 - Identification of the Usual Primary Function for Each Type of Geosynthetic
Type of Geosynthetic (GS) Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage Containment

Geotextile (GT) X Geogrid (GG) Geonet (GN) Geomembrane (GM) Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL) Geopipe (GP) Geofoam (GF) Geocells (GL) X

X X

X X

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

SEPARATOR
Separation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile, between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain intact or even be improved. Paved roads, unpaved roads, and railroad bases are common applications. Also, the use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for cushioning and protection of geomembranes is in this category. In addition, for most applications of geofoam, separation is the major function.

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is the synergistic improvement of a total systems strength created by the introduction of a geotextile, geogrid or geocell (all of which are good in tension) into a soil (that is good in compression, but poor in tension) or other disjointed and separated material. Applications of this function are in mechanically stabilized and retained earth walls and steep soil slopes; they can be combined with masonry facings to create vertical retaining walls. Also involved is the application of basal reinforcement over soft soils and over deep foundations for embankments and heavy surface loadings. Stiff polymer geogrids and geocells do not have to be held in tension to provide soil reinforcement, unlike geotextiles.
FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Stiff 2D geogrid and 3D geocells interlock with the aggregate particles and the reinforcement mechanism is one of confinement of the aggregate. The resulting mechanically stabilized aggregate layer exhibits improved loadbearing performance. Stiff polymer geogrids, with rectangular or triangular apertures, in addition to three-dimensional geocells made from new polymeric alloys are also increasingly specified in unpaved and paved roadways, load platforms and railway ballast, where the improved loadbearing characteristics significantly reduce the requirements for high quality, imported aggregate fills, thus reducing the carbon footprint of the construction.
FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

FILTRATION
Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage, landfill leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms for bags, tubes and containers.

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

DRAINAGE
Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Geopipe highlights this function, and also geonets, geocomposites and (to a lesser extent) geotextiles. Drainage applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields, dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks. Also to be noted is that sheet, edge and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and rock drainage situations.

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

CONTAINMENT
Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some geocomposites which function as liquid or gas barriers. Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these geosynthetics. All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams, canals, reservoir liners, and floating covers) use these geosynthetics as well. "Base for Plantation on dome" Use of geotextile was made in little unused application in India Pavilion at Shanghai Expo 2010. Plantation was to made on a very large dome (more than 34 m diameter). Non woven geotextile was used in two layers. one layer was provided as a base layer and over the same another layer was provided which was punctured at the places where plants were to be planted throgh stappling process. The gap between two layers was used for irrigating the plants and supplying nutrients(Dr. K M Soni).
FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS

CONCLUSION

They are many ways of improving the soil characteristic . Nowadays , there are so many kind of technology in improving the soil characteristic. Soil is important to human kind , in all aspect of farming , constructing, it has many types of characteristic and some can be used freshly but some had to undergo some process so it suitable and ready to be used

CONCLUSION

REFFERRENCES
C 3008 Geotechnic 1 for Polytechnic C 3010 Highway Engineering 1 for Polytechnic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_(soil) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaction_(geology) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynthetic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotextile http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomembranes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geogrids http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocomposite
REFFERENCES