GENRATION OF Click to edit Master subtitle style C MPUTERS

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What is Computer ?
The word computer comes from compute which means to calculate the word

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.

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ABACUS

History of Computer

4th Century B.C.

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The abacus, a simple counting aid, may have been invented in Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth century B.C. This device allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

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BLAISE PASCAL In 1642, the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal invented a calculating device that would come to be called the "Adding Machine". Originally called a "numerical wheel calculator" or the "Pascaline", Pascal's invention utilized a train of 8 moveable dials or cogs to add sums of up to 8 figures long. As one dial turned 10 notches - or a complete revolution - it mechanically turned the next dial.

(1623 - 1662)

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CHARLES BABBAGE

(1791 - 1871) Born in 1791, Charles Babbage was an mathematician and professor. English

In 1822, he persuaded the British government to finance his design to build a machine that would calculate tables for logarithms. With Charles Babbage's creation of the "Analytical Engine", (1833) computers took the form of a general purpose machine.

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HOWARD AIKEN (1900 - 1973)

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Aiken thought he could create a modern and functioning model of Babbage's Analytical Engine. He succeeded in securing a grant of 1 million dollars for his proposed Automatic Sequence Calculator; the Mark I for short. From IBM. In 1944, the Mark I was "switched" on. Aiken's colossal machine spanned 51 feet in length and 8 feet in height. 500 meters of wiring were required to connect each component.
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ENIAC (1946)

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Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer Under the leadership of J. Presper Eckert (1919 - 1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907 - 1980) the team produced a machine that computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than the Mark I was capable of only 2 years earlier.

Using 18,00-19,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints this massive instrument required the output of a small power station to operate it.
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ENIAC (1946)

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It could do nuclear physics calculations (in two hours) which it would have taken 100 engineers a year to do by hand. The system's program could be changed by rewiring a panel.

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Figure : ENIAC

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generation ?

What is

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What is this ?

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First generation computer

Period : 1945 1956 Inviter : Lee de Forest Main processing device : Vacuum tubes Other device: Punched curds
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Vaccum Tube
A vacuum tube consists ofelectrodesin avacuumin an insulating heat-resistant envelope which is usually tubular. Many tubes have glass envelopes, though some types such as power tubes may have ceramic or metal envelopes. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal. On most tubes, the leads are designed to plug into atube socketfor easy replacement.
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Vaccum Tube

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Vaccum Tubes

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Advantages : It was only electronic device First device to hold memory

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Disadvantages :

Bulky size & shape. High energy consumption. High heat emission. Vacuum tubes burn frequently. Very costly.

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SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963)

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The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. These transistors took place of the vacuum tubes used in the first generation computers. The electronic component transistor was invented Master at Bell Laboratories. Click to editin 1948 subtitle style Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit.

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The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Click to edit Master subtitle style Transistorized circuit generated little heat & were less expensive. It have greater processing capacity.

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Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Click to edit Master subtitle style Computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.

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The uses of magnetic cores were other major development of the second generation. Magnetic tapes were still used in this generation. Click to edit Master subtitle style More efficient programming methods and higher level languages like FORTRAN and COBOL become available.

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In this generation of computers could communicate with others using telephone lines. Click to edit Master subtitle one computer another Transmission of data from style was possible in this generation of computer.

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Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful second generation computers used in businesses, universities, and government. In this generation computers were also of solid state to edit Master subtitle style Click design. They also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, and stored programs.

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Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. High-level programming languages were also Click to edit Master subtitle style being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

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 It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The to edit Master concept meant that Clickstored programsubtitle style instructions to run a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held inside the computer's memory.

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Some of the popular models of this generation:

Click to edit Master subtitle style IBM-1401 IBM-1620, BURROUGHS B-200 SERIES, HONEY-WELL H-400, UNIVAC-1004.

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ADVANTAGES
Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices. Click to edit Master subtitle style Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered applications.
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Contd.
No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. Click to edit Master subtitle style Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 50 years.
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Contd.
Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementarysymmetry circuits, something not possible Click to edit Master subtitle style with vacuum tubes. Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of microphonics in audio applications.
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LIMITATION:
Input and Output devices were too slow. Transmission process was style Click to edit Master subtitle very slow. Transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volt.

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THIRD GENERATION
THIRD GENERATION (1964 ~ 1971)

OF COMPUTER

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 Third Generation Computers

(1964-1971)
Although transistors were great deal of improvement over the vacuum tubes, they generated heat and damaged the sensitive areas of the computer. The Intergreated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz.
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More advancement made possible the fitings of even more components on a small chip or a semi conductor. Also in third generation computers, the operating systems allowed the machines to run many different applications. These applications were monitored and coordinated by the computer's memory.

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Third Generation Computer ~ A

computer built with small ~ scale integration integrated circuits, designed after the mid ~ 1960.

Third Generation Computers use semiconductor memories in addition to, and later instead of , ferrite core memory. The two main types of semiconductor 30/11/2010 3737 memory are Read ~ Only Memory (ROM)

A technique called microprogramming become wide spread and simplified the design of the CPUs and increased their flexibility. This also made possible the development of operating systems as software rather than as hard ~ wiring.

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Characteristics of third generation computers in comparison with that of previous generation computers are Third Generation Computers were based on Integrated Circuits (I.C.) technology. Third Generation Computers were able to reduce computational time from micro seconds to nano seconds.
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Third Generation Computers devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air conditioning was still required. The size of Third Generation Computers was smaller as 30/11/2010 4040 compared to privious

Extensive use of high level language we come possible in Third Generation Computers. Manual assembling of individual computers was not required for Third Generation Computers, so it reduced the large requirement of labor & cost. However , for the manufacture of IC chips , highly sophisticated technologies were required. Commercial production become easier and cheaper. 30/11/2010 4141

Applications
With all of the applications of previous generations the computers were used for airline reservations, market forecasting, credit cards, billing etc.

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Smaller in size as compared to previous generations . Increased reliability. Heat generation was rear. Computations were performed in nanoseconds. Hardware failure was very rare. Low maintenance cost. Very easy portable. General purpose. 30/11/2010 4343

Features

Contd.
Less electricity consumption. Commercial production was easier and cheaper. Integrated circuits were used. Integrated circuit contains many electronic components on single chip. They could run 5 million instructions per second. They could store upto 8 million characters .
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Contd.
In 1969 Intel 4004 microprocessor was developed and used only in calculators. Systems developed in this generations were IBM-360, IBM-370. These systems were multi-user, multiprogramming and multi-processing.

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Limitations
Air conditioning required. Frequent maintenance required. Commercial production was costly.

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Fourth Generation 1971-Present

Day

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The thousands of integrated circuits were built on to a single silicon chip, What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. Moores Law ,which suggests that the number of transistors that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every two years. It is often incorrectly quoted,indeed there is a doubling of transistors in every 18 months.

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In the 4th genration IC moving from LSI to VLSI & then to ULSI. LSI(large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip VLSI(very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip. ULSI(ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chip.
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The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers. Microprocessor is a integrated circuit semiconductor chip that performs the bulk of the processing and controls the parts of a system. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the CPU and memory to input/output 30/11/2010 5050 controls on a single chip.

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Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors which are Instruction set,Bandwidth,Clock. Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute.
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In both the cases given above, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16bitmicroprocessor that runs at 25MHz.

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8086 microprocessor
It is a 16-bit Microprocessor(p). It can read or write data to a memory/port either 16bits or 8 bit at a time. 8086 has a 20 bit address bus. Frequency range of 8086 is 6-10 MHz

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Functionality of Pin
It has multiplexed address and data bus AD0AD15 and A16 A19. AD15-AD0 : These are the time multiplexed memory I/O address and data lines. A19,A18,A17,A16 : These are the time multiplexed address and status lines
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Contd.
BHE : The bus high enable is used to indicate the transfer of data over the higher order ( D15-D8 )It goes low for the data transfer over D15-D8 and is used to derive chip selects of odd address memory bank or peripherals. RD Read : This signal on low indicates the peripheral that the processor is performing memory or I/O read operation. READY : This is the acknowledgement from the slow device or memory that they have completed the data transfer
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Contd.
INTR-Interrupt Request : This is a triggered input. CLK- Clock Input : The clock input provides the basic timing for processor operation and bus control activity. INTA Interrupt Acknowledge : This signal is used as a read strobe for interrupt acknowledge cycles. i.e. when it goes low, the processor has accepted the interrupt.

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Contd.
ALE Address Latch Enable : This output signal indicates the availability of the valid address on the address/data lines. DT/R Data Transmit/Receive: This output is used to decide the direction of data flow through the transreceivers (bidirectional buffers). When the processor sends out data, this signal is high and when the processor is receiving data, this signal is low. DEN Data Enable : This signal indicates 30/11/2010 5959 the availability of valid data over the

Contd.
HOLD, HLDA- Acknowledge : When the HOLD line goes high, it indicates to the processor that another master is requesting the bus access. The processor, after receiving the HOLD request, issues the hold acknowledge signal on HLDA pin, in the middle of the next clock cycle after completing the current bus cycle. S2, S1, S0 Status Lines : These are the status lines which reflect the type of operation, being carried out by the processor.
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Various brands of microprocessor

Intel processor AMD Cyrix Nex Gen IDT Rise Processors

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In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Machintosh introduecd Graphic User Interface in which the users didnt' have to type instructions but could use Mouse for the purpose. Due to the reduction of cost and the availability of the computers power at a small place allowed everyday user to benefit. 30/11/2010 6262

The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used.Computer size kept getting reduced during the years. It went down from Desktop to laptops to Palmtops. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.

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The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for the sharing of data. Local Area Networks(LAN) and Wide Area Network(WAN), were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet aand World Wide Web appeared on the computer scene and formented the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's.

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Microcontroller
Microcontroller is a chip that contains all the component of CPU as well as Input/Output in a single chip & have only a single dedicated task.

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Types of Microcontroller
Freescale Coldfire (32-bit) . Intel 8051 microcontrollers. STM Microelectronics STM8(8-bit), ST10 (16bit) and STM32 (32-bit) Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM (32-bit). Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit)

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Advantages
Smaller in size Production cost is very low Very reliable Harware failure is negligible Easily portable because of their small size Totally general purpose Air conditioning is not compulsory Very high processing speed Very large internal and external storage capcity Used advanced input & ouput devices such as 30/11/2010 6767 optical readers, laser printers, CD-ROM/DVD-

Disadvantages
Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturer of microprocessor chips.

The computers have not their own thinking power. These are totally depending upon the instructions given by the users.

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Fifth Generation (Present &

Beyond)

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Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) devices, based Fifth generation computing onartificial intelligence, are still in development,

though there are some applications, such asvoice recognition, that are being used today. The use ofparallel Master subtitle style Click to edit processingand superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.Quantum computationand molecular andnanotechnologywill radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifthgeneration computing is to develop devices that respond tonatural languageinput and are capable of learning and self-organization.

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What is a computer?
A programmable, electronic device that accept data performs operation on that data , presets the result , and can store the data or results as needed. Four primary operation of a computer Input-entering data into the computer. Processing-performoning operation on the data Output-presenting the results Storage-saving data,programs,or output for future use. 30/11/2010 7272

Next generation of computer

The goal is to develop a device that can respond to natural language input and can capable of learning and self organization. Will be much smaller and faster than 4th generation. Greatly increased data storage capability. Will most likely have light , easily transportable display capabilities.

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Voice Recognition
Voice recognition is a technology where the voice of the user is used as a input data. Current programs fall into two categories: Small-vocabulary/many-users These systems are ideal for automated telephone answering. The users can speak with a great deal of variation in accent and speech patterns, and the system will still understand them most of the time. However, usage is limited to a small number of predetermined commands and inputs, such as 30/11/2010 7474 basic menu options or numbers.

Large-vocabulary/limited-users These systems work best in a business environment where a small number of users will work with the program. While these systems work with a good degree of accuracy (85 percent or higher with an expert user) and have vocabularies in the tens of thousands, you must train them to work best with a small number of primary users. The accuracy rate will fall drastically with any other user. Speech recognition systems made more than 10 years ago also faced a choice between discrete and continuous speech. It is much easier for the program to understand words 7575 30/11/2010

How Speech is converted into Data

When user speeks it creats vibration in the air. These vibrations are converted into digital signals by ADC.

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Next the signal is divided into small segments as short as a few hundredths of a second, or even thousandths in the case of plosive consonant sounds -- consonant stops produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract -- like "p" or "t." The program then matches these segments to known phonemes in the appropriate language. A phoneme is the smallest element of a language -- a representation of the sounds we make and put together to form meaningful expressions. There are roughly 40 phonemes in the English language (different linguists have different opinions on the exact number), while other languages have more or fewer 7777 30/11/2010

The next step seems simple, but it is actually the most difficult to accomplish and is the is focus of most speech recognition research. The program examines phonemes in the context of the other phonemes around them. It runs the contextual phoneme plot through a complex statistical model and compares them to a large library of known words, phrases and sentences. The program then determines what the user was probably saying and either outputs it as text or issues a computer command.
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Voice recognition Softwares

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Quantum Computing
In a classical (or conventional) computer , information is stored as bit in a quantum computer , it is stored as qubits. The basic principle of quantum computation is that the quantum properties can be used to represent and structure data and that quantum mechanism can be devised and built to perform operation with this data. A bit is a simple unit of information that is represented by a "1" or a "0" but crucially can be both at the same time- known as a 30/11/2010 8181 superimposition.

Representation of Data - Qubits

A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit

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Excite d State

Groun d State

Nucleus

Light pulse of frequency for time interval t Electron

State | 0>

State | 1>

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Representation of Data - Superposition

A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states. A qubit in superposition is in both of the states |1> and |0 at the same time

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Light pulse of frequency for time interval t/2

State | 0>

State |0> + |1>

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Data Retrieval
In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0 through 2^n-1 simultaneously. If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a superposition, the superposition randomly collapses to represent just one of the original values.

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Future benefits of Quantum computing

Cryptography: breaking any kind of current encryption that takes almost centuries on existing computers , may just take a few years on quantum computer. Artificial Intelligence: perform large amount of operation in a very short period of time. Other benefits: High performance will allow us in development of complex compression algorithm ,voice and image recognition , molecular simulation ,true randomness and 30/11/2010 8787 quantum communication ,Quantum computer

Nanotechnology
A field of science whose goal is to control individual atoms and molecules to create computer chips and other devices that are thousands of times smaller than current technologies permit. No computer can be electronic (where nanolithography is used to create microscopic circuits),biochemical or organic(such as DNA computers),or quantum (such as quantum computers)
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Past Shared computing : thousands of people sharing a mainframe computer

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Present Personal computing

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Nanodots
The new data-storage device in R&D is the use of nanosized dots of nickel which it is hoped could be used to store terabytes of data, even for home and personal users. Considering the relatively large (physically) storage devices we have now, and the fact we tend to currently refer to size in terms of gigabytes, the amazing potential is plain to see. Each "nanodot" consists of a discrete ball of several hundred nickel atoms and can have one of two magnetic states. This allows them to hold a single bit of information - a '1' or a '0' - as is the computing convention. 30/11/2010 9090

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In current hard drives, bits (of information) must be placed far enough apart so as not to interfere with each other. Nanodots operate as complete units which are not structurally linked, therefore allowing them to be packed closer together. They arrange themselves at such a density that should allow anything up to 5 terabytes (5000GB) of data to be stored in a space the size of a postage stamp. Work still has to be carried out to allow these nanodots to operate and interact with other computing devices, such as silicon chips, but the technology is definitely showing promise.

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Artificial Intelligence
What is Artificial intelligence? Various definitions:
Building intelligent entities. Getting computers to do tasks which require human intelligence. Creation of machines that can "think".

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Who does AI?

Many disciplines contribute to goal of creating/modelling intelligent entities:
Computer Science Psychology (human reasoning) Philosophy (nature of belief, rationality, etc) Linguistics (structure and meaning of language) Human Biology (how brain works)

Subject draws on ideas from each discipline.

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Future of AI

Idea of Artificial Intelligence is being replaced by Artificial life, or anything with a form or body. The consensus among scientists is that a requirement for life is that it has an embodiment in some physical form, but this will change. Programs may not fit this requirement for life yet.

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Excel Charts

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Objectives of charts:
Data representation Data analysis Comparison Trend analysis Functional analysis Stock market data analysis

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Using Chart Wizard

Select the cells that contain the numbers wanted in the chart Click on the Wizard tool Choose a type of chart Data ranges Added Detail As object in or As new sheet

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Types of Charts
There are different types of Charts
Column Bar Line Pie Scatter Surface Others

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Column
Column charts is used to compare value across categories. Further divided into different part 2D 3D Cylindrical Cone Pyramids

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Example of column chart:

BSE DATE NSE 09Nov 10Nov 11Nov 12Nov 13Nov 5412 6423 4856 4569 5893 17456 18569 14569 12656 13256

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Line charts
It is used to display trends over time . It also categories in two form. 2D 3D

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Line chart showing price trend of stock:

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Pie charts
It is used to display contribution of each value to the total. It is used when we have values can be added together . The values have only one series . When values are positive They also have two Categories 2D 3D
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2 D pie charts

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Pie in 3 d

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Bar charts
Bar charts is best chart type for comparing values. They are having different forms : 2D 3D Cylindrical Cone pyramid

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Bar in 2D

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Bar in 3D

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Cylindrical bar charts:

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Area charts
They used to represent several set of data over a period of time . It also represent in 2D 3D

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Area in 2D

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SCATTER CHARTS
This representation is also knows as xy representation. They compare pairs of values They used when the value are not charted on x axis. When there is the separate measurement is required .

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Query

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