Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Fundamentals

S. G. Lakhdive, Head, Dept. of Computer Science,

Prof. Ramkrishna More College, Akurdi, Pune

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Outline

Structure of the human eye

Image formation in the human eye Brightness adaptation and discrimination

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Human and Computer Vision

We cant think of image processing without considering the human vision system. We observe and evaluate the images that we process with our visual system. Without taking this elementary fact into consideration, we may be much misled in the interpretation of images.

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Structure of the human eye

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Structure of the human eye

The cornea and sclera outer cover

The choroid
Ciliary body Iris Lens

The retina (two kinds of receptors)

Cones vision (photopic/bright-light vision) : centered at fovea, highly sensitive to color Rods (scotopic/dim-light vision) : general view Blind spot
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Lens & Retina

Lens : both infrared and ultraviolet light are absorbed

appreciably by proteins within the lens structure and, in excessive amounts, can cause damage to the eye.

Retina : Innermost membrane of the eye which lines

inside of the walls entire posterior portion. When the eye is properly focused, light from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina.

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Receptors

Pattern vision is afforded by the distribution of discrete light receptors over the surface of the retina.

Receptors are divided into 2 classes:

Cones Rods

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Cones 6-7 million, located primarily in the central portion of the retina (the fovea, muscles controlling the eye rotate the eyeball until the image falls on the fovea)
Highly sensitive to color. Each is connected to its own nerve end thus human can resolve fine details. Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision.

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Rods

75-150 million, distributed over the retina surface.

Several rods are connected to a single nerve end reduce the amount of detail discernible.

Serve to give a general, overall picture of the field of view.

Sensitive to low levels of illumination.

Rod vision is called scotopic or dim-light vision.

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Cross Section Right eye

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Image formation in the human eye

Radiant Energy

Light Receptor

Brain

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Brightness adaptation

Dynamic range of human visual system: 10-6~104 mL (millilambert)

Can not accomplish this range simultaneously

The current sensitivity level of the visual system is called brightness adaptation level

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Brightness adaptation

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Brightness discrimination

Weber ratio (the experiment) : I C / I

I: the background illumination

I C : the increment of illumination

Small Weber ratio indicates good discrimination Larger Weber ratio indicates poor discrimination Weber's Law states that the ratio of the increment threshold to the background intensity is a constant. So when you are in a noisy environment you must shout to be heard while a whisper works in a quiet room. And when you measure increment thresholds on various intensity backgrounds, the thresholds increase in proportion to the background.
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Brightness discrimination

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Psycho-visual effects

The perceived brightness is not a simple function of intensity

Mach band pattern Simultaneous contrast Optical illusion

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Mach band pattern

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Simultaneous contrast

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Optical illusion

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Optical illusion

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Optical illusion

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Sampling, Quantization and Other Simple Operations

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Outline

Digital image representation

Image formation model Uniform sampling

Uniform quantization
Relationships between pixels

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Digital Image Representation

A digital image is an image f(x,y) that has been digitized both in spatial coordinates and brightness.
The value of f at any point (x,y) is proportional to the brightness (or gray level) of the image at that point. A digital image can be considered a matrix whose row and column indices identify a point in the image and the corresponding matrix element value identifies the gray level at that point.

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Digital Image Representation

Pixel values in highlighted region

CAMERA =>

DIGITIZER

=>A set of number in 2D grid

Samples the analog data and digitizes it.

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Sampling, Quantization and Other Simple Operations Image Formation Model

Monochrome image
Illumination:
f x, y may be characterized by two components : i x, y
r x, y

Reflectance:

f x, y i x, y r x, y 0 i x, y
0 f x, y

0 r x, y 1

Typical values of the illumination and reflectance:

Illumination: sun on earth: 90,000 lm/m2 on a sunny day; 10,000 lm/m2 on a cloud day; moon on clear evening: 0.1 lm/m2; in a commercial office is about 1000 lm/m2 Reflectance: 0.01 for black velvet, 0.65 for stainless steel, 0.80 for flat-white wall paint, 0.90 for silver-plated metal, and 0.93 for snow
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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Uniform sampling and quantization

Sampling
digitalized in spatial domain

Quantization
digitalized in amplitude

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Uniform sampling and quantization

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Digital image representation

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Image resolution

Spatial resolution : It is a measure of smallest discernible details in an image. The more pixels in a fixed range, the higher the resolution
Gray-level resolution : the more bits, the higher the resolution

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Gray level

We call the intensity of a monochrome image f at coordinate (x,y) the gray level (l) of the image at that point.
thus, l lies in the range L min <= l <= L max Where Lmin is positive and Lmax is finite. gray scale = [Lmin, Lmax]

0 = black , L = white

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Number of bits

The number of gray levels typically is an integer power of 2 L = 2k

Number of bits required to store a digitized image b=MxNxk

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Resolution

Resolution (how much you can see the detail of the image) depends on sampling and graylevels.
the bigger the sampling rate (n) and the gray

scale (g), the better the approximation of the

digitized image from the original.

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Checkerboard effect

(a) 1024x1024
(b) 512x512 (c) 256x256

(d) 128x128
(e) 64x64 (f) 32x32

if the resolution is decreased too much, the checkerboard effect can occur.

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False contouring

a) Gray level = 16
b) Gray level = 8 c) Gray level = 4 d) Gray level = 2 if the gray scale is not enough, the smooth area will be affected. False contouring can occur on the smooth area which has fine gray scales.

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Image zooming and shrinking

Both applied to digital image

Zooming
Creation of new pixel locations

Assignment of gray levels to those new locations

Pixel replication, when increasing the size of an image an integer times

Shrinking

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Neighbors of a pixel Neighbors of pixel are the pixels that are adjacent pixels of an identified pixel.
Each pixel is a unit distance from the particular pixel. Some of the neighbors of pixel lie outside the digital image if its position is on the border of the image.

Pixel at coordinate (column x, row y) can be represented by f(x,y)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Pixel at the 7th column and 4th row is yellow color

Zoom 1600%

4-neighbors of pixel

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4-neighbors of pixel is denoted by N4(p)

It is set of horizontal and vertical neighbors (x-1) (x) (x+1) (y-1) (y)

(y+1)

f(x,y) is a yellow circle f(x,y-1) is top one f(x-1,y) is left one f(x+1,y) is right one f(x,y+1) is bottom one

Diagonal neighbors of pixel

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Diagonal neighbors of pixel is denoted by ND(p)

It is set of diagonal neighbors (x-1) (x) (x+1) f(x,y) is a yellow circle f(x-1,y-1) is top-left one (y-1) f(x+1,y-1) is top-right one (y) f(x-1,y+1) is bottom-left one f(x+1,y+1) is bottom-right one (y+1)

8-neighbors of pixel

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8-neighbors of pixel is denoted by N8(p)

4-neighbors and Diagonal neighbors of pixel
(x-1) (x) (x+1) (y-1) (y)

(y+1)

f(x,y) is a yellow circle (x-1,y-1), (x,y-1),(x+1,y-1), (x-1,y), (x,y), (x+1,y), (x-1,y+1),(x,y+1), (x+1,y+1)

Connectivity

Digital Image Processing

Establishing boundaries of objects and components of regions in an image.

Group the same region by assumption that the pixels being the same color or equal intensity will are the same region

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Digital Image Processing

Let C is the set of colors used to define

There are three type of connectivity:
4-Connectivity : 2 pixels (p and q) with value in C are 4-connectivity if q is in the set N4(p)

8-Connectivity : 2 pixels (p and q) with value in C are 8-connectivity if q is in the set N8(p)
M-Connectivity : 2 pixels (p and q) with value in C are 8-connectivity if
(i)
(ii)

Q is in N4(p), or
Q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p) N4(q) has no pixels whose value are from V

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Sampling, Quantization, and Operations Relationships between pixels

m-adjacency

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Distance Measure

For pixels p, q, and z, with coordinates (x,y), (s,t) and (u,v) respectively, D is a distance function or metric if
(a) (b) (c) (d) D(p,q) 0 and D(p,q) = 0 iff p = q and D(p,q) = D(q,p) and D(p,z) D(p,q) + D(q,z)

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The D4 Distance Also called city-block distance

Calculate between p and q is defined as D4(p,q) = | x- s | + | y - t |
2 2 2 1 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 2 2

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The D8 Distance

Also called chessboard distance

Calculate between p and q is defined as D8(p,q) = max(| x - s |,| y - t |)
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2