Biodiversity parks, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries - role in environmental amelioration

Makrand p. Gujar I Ph.D (Forestry)

Status of Protected Areas (PAs) in INDIA

A network of 664 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1,58,508 sq. kms. 4.83% of total geographic area 99 National Parks, 516 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 42 Conservation Reserves and 7 Community Reserves. 39 Tiger Reserves and 28 Elephant Reserves

PAs subjected to tremendous pressure due to burgeoning population followed by use, over use and sometimes abuse of such areas Commission of national parks and protected area(CNPPA) of IUCN has divided PAs as Type Strict nature Reserve/Wilderness Areas: National parks Eg National parks Natural monuments Habitat/Species management areas Eg Sanctuaries Protected Landscape/Seascape Eg. Conservation Reserves Managed resource protected area Eg Biosphere Reserve Managed for Protected protection areas managed mainly for science or widerness Protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation Protected areas managed mainly for conservation of specidfic natural features Conservation through management intervention Landscape/seacape conservation and recreation The sustainable use of natural ecosystems

Category Category I II III IV

VI

National Parks
>1,100 national parks in 120 countries Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected

Local people invade parks to survive

Main issues concerning the management of Protected Areas:

Wildlife conservation and management in India is currently facing a myriad of complex challenges that are both ecological and social in nature.

Issues such as habitat loss/fragmentation,

Overuse of biomass resources in the context of biotic pressures, Increasing human-wildlife conflicts, livelihood dependence on forests and wildlife resources, Poaching and illegal trade in wildlife parts and products, Need for maintaining a broad base of public support for wildlife conservation exemplify and characterize the contemporary wildlife conservation scenario in India.

Improved synergies and better coordination amongst the wide array of stakeholders are needed to meet the challenges of conserving Indias diverse wilderness resources.

New PAs are getting increasingly difficult to form. The reasons for the same are:
1. Delayed procedure for the settlement of rights, where required. 2. In recent years, a PA has become politically and socially unpopular due to
the fear of displacement, denial of access to bio-resources, etc., especially since the degradation of non-PA areas has left the PAs with more bioresources in comparison with the neighbouring forests.

3. The protection afforded in PAs has also led to an increase in animal populations within PAs, which has led to greater raids on neighbouring crops and livestock and thus greater man-animal conflicts.

Environmental problems faced by protected areas

Pollution Mining Urbanization Deforestation and Degradation Tourism Encroachment: Grazing: It is estimated that 60% of the domestic herbivore population graze in the forest.

Global Warming

POLLUTION

Nilgiri biosphere reserve (NBR)

First biosphere reserve set up in 1986 Covers 5670 sq. km Great biodiversity: 3700 plant species and 684 vertebrate species (156 are endemic) Population pressure: 2 million people living inside NBR

Threats to NBR
Intrinsic threats Increasing human population Cattles Large number of estates, factories Hydel projects (upper bhavani, kundha, Extrinsic threats Transport (state and national highways,railway lines) Tourism (Ooty, adventure sports in moyar river)

pykara)
Major industries are Needle factory Hindustan photo films The cordites (explosive) Faulty land use (cultivation of vegetables on steep slopes, tea gardens) caused

Introduction of exotics(wattles,
eucalyptus)

landslides and siltation

Pollution in NBR
Industries are spread in 8 districts under NBR Nilgiri district: 7 major industries Chemical factory(sandinella) producing Gelatine discharges 4300 kilo litres effluent daily in pykara river Hindustan photo film (Ooty)discharges about 1200 kilo litres of chemical waste in river moyar

Needle factory (keti) produces solid waste of 850 kg/day and around 107 kilo litres of effulent dumped in coonoor river

Bhavani river: pollution hotspot in NBR

Water is highly contaminated Deep black in colour and rich in organic wastes due to various industrial effluents discharge Water quality is very poor with BOD and COD demand several hundred times more than tolerable limits

Instances of fish mortality due to high contamination level.

Pesticide contamination in NBR

Nilgiri district: Indiscriminate use of pesticides 600 mt of pesticides in granule form and about 28000 litres in liquid form is used. Coimbatore district: cultivation of cotton has huge pesticide consumption

Status of protected areas within NBR

State Karnataka Protected area Bandipur national park Problems Appropriate weed managent, cattle grazing, fire, human animal conflict cattle grazing, fire, human animal conflict, tourism Habitat management, human encroachment Fire, tourism, Habitat management, Management plans, fire, human animal conflict, tourism Elephant habitat, riverine habitat

Rajiv Gandhi national park Kerala Nilambur reserve forest Silent valley national park Wynaad WLS

Tamil nadu

Coimbatore central forest division

Ground water can be contaminated through various sources and some of these are mentioned below.
Pesticides: Run-off from farms, backyards, and golf courses contain pesticides such as DDT that in turn contaminate the water. Sewage: Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a major source of groundwater and surface water pollution in the developing countries. Nutrients: Domestic waste water, agricultural run-off, and industrial effluents contain phosphorus and nitrogen, fertilizer run-off, manure from livestock operations, which increase the level of nutrients in water bodies and can cause eutrophication in the lakes and rivers and continue on to the coastal areas. Synthetic organics: POPs or Persistent organic pollutants, represent the most harmful element for the ecosystem and for human health, for example, industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides

Acidification: Acidification of surface water, mainly lakes and reservoirs, is one of the major environmental impacts of transport over long distance of air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide from power plants, other heavy industry such as steel plants, and motor vehicles.

Mining

Mining- its effect on national parks

Waste production: High for gold and silver mining(99 %) Iron mining (60 % of ore extracted ) (Sampat 2003) The impacts are often more pronounced for open-pit mines than for underground mines, which tend to produce less waste. Degradation of aquatic ecosystems and receiving water bodies, often involving substantial reductions in water quality, can be among the most severe potential impacts of metals extraction. Pollution of water bodies results from three primary factors:
sedimentation, acid drainage, : It occurs when sulfide-bearing minerals, such as pyrite or pyrrhotite, are exposed to oxygen or water, producing sulfuric acid. metals deposition.

Biodiversity and Habitat removal of vegetation, which in turn alters the availability of food and shelter for wildlife. At a broader scale, mining may impact biodiversity by changing species composition and structure

Problems associated with mining.. contd

Environmental impacts and underlying causes

Environmental
Impacts

Underlying causes Drilling, blasting and transport of rock Crushing and loading in handling plant Auto emissions Mine fires

Air pollution

Water pollution

Direct discharge of mine water to natural courses Coal fine in the wash off from coal stocks and dumps Domestic effluents Drilling and blasting of rock Crushing and loading in handling plant Operation of heavy earth moving machinery Transport vehicles
(Panwar, 1999)

Noise pollution

UNESCO World Heritage Sites Impacted by Extractive Industries

Problems associated with mining.. contd

1. Impact of open cast mining Deforestation Removal of top soil Noise pollution

Emissions of gaseous and particulate pollutants

2. Impact of underground mining Subsidence

Vibration
Mine fires

Deforestation

Topsoil removal.....

Fire at an underground coal mine

Emissions of dust during transportation

Assam Coal field

Urbanization

Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP),Mumbai

It encompasses an area of 104 km2 Surrounded on three sides by India's most populous city The rich flora and fauna of Sanjay Gandhi National Park attracts more than 2 million visitors every year. Biodiversity: An estimated 800 types of flowering plants; 284 kinds of birds; 5,000 species of insects; 36 types of mammals; 62 reptiles and 150 species of butterfly call the forest their home.

Threats
The park has faced a number of problems similar to those faced by national parks elsewhere in the world, involving conflicts between natural and human interests.

In the early 1970s a road, as proposed, would have cut through the park. Naturalist Humayun Abdulali went to court to halt this project.
The lack of space in Mumbai has pushed residential colonies right up to the park boundary. This boundary is poorly fenced and has often allowed wild animals into human habitations. Slums have mushroomed around the park as well. Corruption among local politicians and Mumbai's influential builder lobby are commonly seen as responsible for a perceived shrinking of the park. In June 2004, leopards were responsible for the deaths of 20 humans within the span of a week. This was not the first attack. For the past 10 years there have been attacks attributed to leopards stalking children and adults outside the park fringes. After an outcry was raised and the situation reached alarming proportions, eight leopards were caught and relocated.

Nairobi National Park

Located within the city of Nairobi, separated from built-up areas by an electrified fence The main threat to Nairobi National Park from urbanization is urban sprawl

Heavy industry, as well as residential and commercial development, extends right up to the park fence
An extensive area vital for animal migration and dispersal is gradually being subdivided and fenced into small parcels.

Tourism

Effect of Tourism
TOURISM DESTROYING VITAL CORRIDORS The Kosi river corridor

Impact of tourism in Corbet tiger reserve

Prerana singh bindara;2010
LAND LEVELLED IN THE HEART OF TIGER RESERVE

RAIN DANCING DISCS,PARTIES.....

TRACKS ON THE RIVER BED FOR QUAD BIKING

TIGER RESERVE OR GARBAGE DUMP?

CROWDING A TIGER A TYPICAL WILDERNESS MOMENT!

MOEF reply on tourism in CTR

Reports relating to disturbance of wildlife habitat/corridor around Corbett Tiger Reserve on account of tourism infrastructure have come to light. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has not specifically monitored ambient air quality and noise levels in National Parks. As per the information provided by Director, Corbett Tiger Reserve, there is no air or noise pollution inside the Corbett National Park in the last one year. Poor breeding of tigers in the Corbett National Park has also not been observed.
A number of precautionary measures have been implemented in the Corbett National Park. Restriction on the number of vehicles allowed inside the park, Enforcement of speed limits for vehicles, Checking of Pollution Under Control Certificate in local vehicles, Ban on smoking, blowing of horns and playing of transistor or radio within park area. The concerned authorities have been advised by the National Tiger Conservation Authority to regulate the tourism related commercial activities in the Corbett Tiger Reserve area. Further, advisories have been issued to tiger range States including Uttarakhand, for regulating tourist visitation in tiger reserves vis--vis the carrying capacity. This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment and Forests (Independent Charge) Shri Jairam Ramesh,

Measures to control tourism menance

Tourism zones should be clearly defined. The Tourism Plan must also be revised and updated periodically. No new tourist facilities and complexes be established where a 5 km radius of a PA without the prior approval of the State Wildlife Board. Development around the protected area, particularly in the buffer zone, must be to protect the eco-system and as far as possible to exert a centrifugal pressure on human populations in the area. Steps that serve to attract a population to these sensitive areas are not in the long-term interest of the PA. Tourism does not occur in Protected Areas alone but is also a feature of other forested areas, particularly those located in mountains near hill stations, along trekking routes and around water bodies. In such situations too the authorities must take steps to educate the public about being eco-sensitive, to avoid damaging natural flora and to ensure that there is no fire hazard caused by their careless picnicking.

CLIMATE CHANGE

What is the role of forest ???

More carbon in forests than in the atmosphere
~4500 Gt CO2 in forest ecosystems, compared with ~3000 Gt CO2 in atmosphere [380 ppm] STOP IT U FOOL

Table. Worlds Top five Carbon Emitters

Country
China
United States Russia India Japan

CO emissions (metric tonnes)

2

6027
5769 1587 1324 1130

Source : Deccan herald news paper, 2009(7/12)

What are the causes ?????

Unlimited burning of fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas to satisfy our needs

Fossil fuels in essence plant matter from many millions of years ago, and they contain CO2.
Abundant CO2 trapped in plant matter has been locked away for millennia until the start of industrial revolution.

We are releasing CO2 at ever-increasing rate (around 28 billion tons of CO2 into atmosphere , last year)
layer of greenhouse gas gets thicker. Making Earth warmer and the conditions under which humanity has thrived are rapidly changing.

Mitigation technologies and practices identified by IPCC in the forestry Sector

Afforestation/Reforestation Forest management Reduced deforestation Increased use of wood products

Use of forestry products for bioenergy replace fossil fuel use .

Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Infrastructure Projects to Protect Carbon Sinks and Biodiversity Sectors: Energy, Hydropower Environmental impacts Flooding of natural habitats near reservoirs; displacement/ loss of wildlife; loss of biodiversity; deterioration of water quality; alteration of fish communities and other aquatic life; sedimentation of reservoirs; construction of multiple dams in one river; human resettlement; Mitigation/ conservation actions Creation of compensatory protected areas; species conservation in situ and ex situ; minimization of flooded habitats; water pollution control/vegetation removal; water release management; physical removal of containments; sediment management techniques; landscape treatment; environmental assessment of cumulative impacts Quintero 2007

The role of forest protected areas in adaptation to climate change

The relationship between forests and climate change is intricate. On the one hand forests can mitigate climate change by absorbing carbon, while on the other they can contribute to climate change if they are degraded or destroyed. In turn climatic changes may lead to forest degradation or loss which exacerbates climate change further. Protected areas that were set up to safeguard biodiversity and ecological processes are likely to be affected by climate change in a number of ways. Climate change is expected to cause species to migrate to areas with more favourable temperature and precipitation. There is a high probability that competing, sometimes invasive species, more adapted to a new climate, will move in. Such movements could leave some protected areas with a different habitat and species assemblage than they were initially designed to protect. For example, Scott (2005) found that a stated objective of Prince Albert National Park in Saskatchewan, Canada, to protect ecological integrity for all time,is unrealistic, as all possible climate scenarios project the eventual loss of boreal forests and their related biodiversity in that area.
Mansourian et al.,2010

Contd.
Climate change is expected to lead to disease outbreaks as pest species may become more resistant or Survive longer and new pest species may invade protected areas. Climate change is also likely to lead to a higher incidence of fire in some situations and floods in others (IPCC, 2007).
The negative effects of climate change on protected areas will be compounded by other stresses, notably those caused by humans, for example through overconsumption, pollution or encroaching urbanization. Biodiversity in protected areas that may already be vulnerable because of these human threats may be more quickly or more severely affected by climate change.

The role of protected areas in storing carbon and reducing emissions

Carbon emissions from deforestation account for an estimated 20% of global carbon emissions (IPCC, 2007); To successfully reduce greenhouse gas emissions from land cover change, effective strategies for protecting natural habitats are needed. Strengthening the current protected area network could contribute to this.

They estimate that the earths terrestrial ecosystems store around 2,050 gigatons (Gt) of carbon in their biomass and soil (to 1 m depth). Protected areas worldwide cover 12.2% of the land surface, and 15.2% of the global terrestrial carbon stock (312 Gt) lies within the protected area network. South America is notable for both its large stock of carbon and the high proportion of this carbon stored within protected areas. By way of contrast, the Pacific has a high carbon density, but only 4% of the carbon stock is stored within the current protected area network.
Campbell.,2009

Contd..
Deforestation within protected areas of the humid tropical forest biome suggests that, while deforestation rates within protected areas are much lower than the background level, they still suffer substantial levels of forest loss. A total of 70Gt of carbon was stored within protected areas of the humid tropical biome in 2000, and a loss of almost 2% of forest area from 20002005 resulted in emissions of up to 990Mt CO2 equivalent to the atmosphere, or 3% of the total estimated emissions from deforestation (IPCC, 2007) Approximately 75% of total emissions from deforestation in protected areas were observed in the Neotropics, with up to 15% coming from Tropical Asia. Deforestation rates inside protected areas were highest in tropical Asia Improving the effectiveness of protected areas networks could be an important strategy for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation

IMPORTANCE OF FOREST PROTECTED AREAS IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE The world now has over 100 000 protected areas, of which the terrestrial ones cover 12.2 percent of the earths surface (UNEP-WCMC, 2008) Ecological role In supporting species to adapt to changing climate patterns and sudden climate events by providing refuges and migration corridors Social role in protecting people from sudden climatic events and problems; Economic role indirectly, in supporting economies to adapt to climate change by reducing vulnerability to floods, droughts and other weather-induced reducing the costs of climate-related negative impacts. The potential loss of protected areas may lead to loss of revenue, from tourism for ; example (Iguazu Falls National Park, on the border between Brazil and Argentina, one of the top destinations in South America with nearly 2 million tourists a year)

The National Mission for a Green India objectives

Has three main objectives; 1. Double the area to be taken up for afforestation /eco-restoration in India in the next 10 years, taking the total area to be afforested or eco-restored to 20 million ha. (i.e., 10 million ha of additional forest/non forest area to be treated by the Mission, in addition to the 10 million ha which is likely to be treated by Forest Department and other agencies through other interventions). 2. Increase the GHG removals by Indias forests to 6.35% of Indias annual total GHG emissions by the year 2020 (an increase of 1.5% over what it would be in the absence of the Mission). This would require an increase in above and below ground biomass in 10 million ha of forests/ecosystems, resulting in increased carbon sequestration of 43 million tons CO2-e annually. 3.Enhance the resilience of forests/ecosystems being treated under the Mission enhance infiltration, groundwater recharge, stream and spring flows, biodiversity value, provisioning of services (fuel wood, fodder, timber, NTFPs, etc.) to help local communities adapt to climatic variability.

Conclusion

 Although most protected areas are established primarily for their biodiversity values, many provide other ecosystem services, including
watershed protection and provision of high quality water; carbon storage and sequestration; and coastal protection and reducing vulnerability to disasters such as floods, drought, and other natural hazards.

Implementation of polluters pay principle Effective afforestation of mined areas Strengthening the protected area network through increasing area under PANs, policy measures, better implementation of laws, strict action against offenders. Promotion of responsible tourism (ecotourism) to reduce the damage to national parks. Awareness and education of masses Preventing encroachment of forest

 Current PAN is unevenly distributed over states and biogeography zones. Ladakh, South deccan, Gangetic plains, Assam hill and Nicobar Islands have less than 1% of their total area under such protection, though these constitutes some of the biodiversity rich areas of the country. Completion of legal procedure prescribed under WPA,1972 by many PAN. Issues relating to settlement rights are should be resolved.

Conservationists Lament
The world is finite, resources are scarce Things are bad and will be worse Coal is burned and gas exploded Forests cut and soils eroded. Wells are dry and airs polluted. Dust is blowing trees uprooted Oil is going ores depleted. Drains receive what is excreted Land is sinking seas are rising Man is far too enterprising Fire will raise with Man to fan it, Soon we will have plundered planet. People breed like fertile rabbits, People have disgusting habits. THE EVOLUTIONARY PLAN WENT ASTRAY BY EVOLVING MAN Boulding (1956)

Regulations/ laws relating to Protected Areas (PAs):

The PAs are constituted and governed under the provisions of the Indian WildLife (Protection) Act, 1972, which has been amended from time to time, with the changing ground realities concerning wildlife crime control and PAs management. Implementation of this Act is further complemented by other Acts viz. Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Whaling Commission (IWC), UNESCO-World Heritage Committee and Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

Major pressures on biodiversity conservation

The major pressures that are associated with biodiversity conservation are as follows: Low priority for conservation of living natural resources. Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain. Inadequate knowledge about the values of species and ecosystems. Unplanned urbanization, uncontrolled industrialization and pollution. Uncontrolled commercial exploitation of natural resources Habitat destruction. Adhoc extension of high input agriculture Conversion of rich biodiversity sites for human settlement and industrial development Destruction of coastal areas Other factors like forest fires and natural calamities like floods, cyclones, droughts and diseases.

Important steps towards conservation of biodiversity are:for extensive in situ Specific land area has been earmarked

conservation of habitats and ecosystems. The results of this network have been significant in restoring some rare and endangered species. A programme entitled, 'Eco-development' for in situ conservation of biological diversity involving local communities has been initiated in recent years. The concept of eco-development integrates the ecological and economic parameters for sustained conservation of ecosystems by involving the local communities with the maintenance of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas. The economic needs of the local communities are taken care of under this programme through provision of alternative sources of income and a steady availability of forest and related produce.

Natural Capital: Forests

Solutions: National Parks

Roads and Forests

Tropical Forests
Cover 6% of earths land area Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals Vulnerable to extinction specialized niches Rapid loss of 50,000170,000 km2 per year

Problems Protecting National Parks

Illegal logging Illegal mining Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large animals Invasion of nonnative species

Illegal Killing and Trading of Wildlife

Poaching endangers many larger animals, rare plants Over two-thirds die in transit Illegal trade $6$10 billion per year Wild species depleted by pet trade Exotic plants often illegally gathered

White Rhinoceros Poached for Its Horn

The Value of Wild Rare Species

Declining populations increase black market values Rare species valuable in the wild ecotourism

Some ex-poachers turn to eco-tourism

Rising Demand for Bush Meat

Traditional use of bush meat Demand increasing with population growth Increased road access Loggers, miners, ranchers add to pressure Local and biological extinctions

Bush Meat on the Rise

Stresses on U.S. National Parks

Biggest problem popularity Damage from nonnative species Threatened islands of biodiversity

Species Introductions
Most beneficial food crops, livestock, pest control 500,000 alien invader species globally 50,000 nonnative species in the U.S. The economic toll from damage by invasive speciesand the costs of trying to control themis enormous: U.S. $137 billion a year, according to a 1999 Cornell University study.

Deliberately Introduced Species

Accidentally Introduced Species

Characteristics of Successful Invaders

Fig. 9-12, p. 187

Case Study: Costa Rica

Superpower of biodiversity Conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves

Government eliminated deforestation subsidies

Paid landowners to maintain and restore tree coverage Goal to make sustainable forestry profitable

Model Biosphere Reserve

Costa Ricas Megareserve Network

Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity

Wilderness Minimum size >4,000 km2 Preserves natural capital Centers for evolution

Case Study: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S.

1964 Wilderness Act Roadless Rule protects 400,000 sq. miles Pressure from oil, gas, mining, and logging

Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots

17 megadiversity countries in tropics and subtropics Two-thirds of biodiversity Developing countries economically poor and biodiversity rich Protect biodiversity hotspots

34 Global Hotspots

8-8 What Should Be Our Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity?

Concept 8-8 Sustaining the worlds biodiversity requires mapping terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, protecting terrestrial and aquatic hotspots and old-growth forests, initiating ecological restoration projects worldwide, and making conservation profitable.

Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity

Map terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity Immediately preserve biodiversity hotspots Keep old-growth forests intact Protect and restore lakes and rivers Initiate ecological restoration Make conservation profitable

Total economic values of protected areas

Source: Adapted from Barbier et al., (1997)

Impacts of Climate Change and Pollution in Barsakelmes Nature Reserve, Kazakhstan

Unique coastal plants and fauna not adapted to salt water could be inundated and obliterated by rising sea levels. * Certain reptiles, including alligators, crocodiles, and turtles, are likely to decline because the gender of the developing embryos is determined by nest temperature. Eggs affected by global warming might all become the same sex, precluding reproduction in future generations. * Bird populations are likely to dwindle in many states as increased warmth destroys vital ecosystems faster than the ecosystems can shift north to cooler climes. Warming of streams could harm aquatic plants and animals that have narrow temperature tolerances. Forests and grasslands may be damaged by changes in soil temperature and chemistry, affecting survival and reproduction in plant species. Grasses, trees, and other plants may die off as ambient temperatures increase. * * ** *Disruption of Natural Processes* The health of park ecosystems depends on some of nature's most powerful recurring forces: free-flowing rivers, fire, erosion, and even major storms such as hurricanes. The ongoing human drive to dominate and harness nature, as well as the effects of historic patterns of human action that were based on incorrect information or lack of understanding, has meant the disruption of these forces in many places . ** ** *Funding Shortfalls* The National Park Service lacks critical information about species, biological communities, ecosystems, and how best to manage the parks to conserve biodiversity. Recovery plans for some imperiled species are often incomplete and out-of-date, and, despite recent improvements, not one park has a complete inventory of its plant and animal species or a thorough monitoring system in place. Even though the Park Service is critically short of funds, the problem goes beyond a lack of money. Harbor Seal *CASE STUDY: POINT REYES NATIONAL SEASHORE * ** Northern California's Point Reyes National Seashore harbors an astonishingly rich array of terrestrial and marine species, including 36 listed as threatened or endangered by either the State of California or the federal government. Some 600 native vascular plant species are known in the park. The seashore's mild climate and wide variety of habitats sustain 460 bird species during the breeding and wintering seasons. Both shorebirds and land birds flock to Point Reyes to feast on invertebrates in estuaries and streamside areas. Point Reyes is one of the few places where both brown and American white pelicans occur together. Protected whales and pinnipedsharbor seals, California sea lions, and northern elephant sealsmigrate just offshore, serving as magnets for visitors. In particular, gray whales, which hug the park's shoreline on their winter and summer migrations, draw thousands of visitors every year. This biological diversity is threatened. A recent report by the National Parks Conservation Association revealed that invasive plant species are overrunning native species, reducing available food for wildlife. Nonnative invasive diseases are afflicting elk and deer. Sudden Oak Death is on the verge of infecting live oak, black oak, tanoak, huckleberry, and 16 other plant species. The overall condition of natural resources is likely to deteriorate in the near futureprimarily because of the effects of invasive non-native species and insufficient funding. While much is known about Point Reyes vertebrates, data on invertebrate and marine species are incomplete. Lack of information concerning important biological groups such as marine species, invertebrates, and nonvascular plants is likely to hinder integrated management of the park's natural resources. *Recommendations* * Eliminate or control the spread of nonnative invasive species. * Increase funding and staffing. The most significant limiting factor in the Park Service's capacity for protecting park resources is the amount of money the agency receives. Current funding covers only 60 percent of the park's annual needs.

There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves

Sanctuary is an area comprised within any reserve forest or the territorial waters, which is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The Sanctuary is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary could be permitted. Further during the settlement of claims, before finally notifying the Sanctuary, the Collector may, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, allow the continuation of any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the Sanctuary.

 National Park is an area within a Sanctuary or outside having adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The National Park is also declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, like that of a Sanctuary. The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people livening inside. Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed. No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it. In addition, while any removal or exploitation of wildlife of forest produce from a Sanctuary requires the recommendation of the State Board for Wildlife, removal etc., from National Park requires recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (However, as per orders of Honble Supreme Court dated 9th May 2002 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337 of 1995, such removal/ exploitation from a Sanctuary also requires recommendation of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife).

 Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those areas which link one Protected Area with another. Such declaration should be made after having consultations with the local communities. Conservation Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.

 Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or community land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve, where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Community Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices. As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.

State-wise details of the Protected Area Network of the country

Contd..

Invasive Species* The invasion of national parks by nonnative species ranks among the most significant causes of biodiversity loss in parks. Nonnative plants and animals introduced into a new ecosystem produce a variety of results. Some exotic species die out. Others, such as the apple tree, cause no major ecological problems. But yet others find the new environment hospitable and free of pests or predators, allowing them to compete aggressively with native species. Invading populations then expand rapidly, severing the supporting links in a once-functioning ecosystem. *Habitat Loss and Fragmentation* Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and degradation continue at a rapid pace in the United States, mostly outside parks. Development fragments habitat, creating barriers to wildlife movement and complicating ecosystem management at the regional and landscape levels. Scientific evidence shows that no park ecosystem can remain healthy as an isolated refuge in a sea of development, yet parkseven large onesare becoming surrounded. *Inadequate Park Boundaries* One of the chief problems in protecting park biodiversity is the historical fact that the national parks were not originally created to protect ecosystems. When Yellowstone became the nation's first park in 1872, lawmakers simply drew lines on a map around some of the most spectacular mountain landscapes. If scientists and ecologists were to redraw those lines today, they would be sure to include more than high mountains. They would incorporate fertile lowlands and winter feeding grounds for bison, elk, and other creatures. Many park boundaries were drawn for political or administrative reasons, failing to protect winter range or critical watersheds. Cutting-edge research in conservation biology emphasizes creation of new parks, expansion of existing parks, and creation of reserves of all kinds to protect biodiversity-rich areas and weave a network of connected, protected lands resilient for the long-term. *

Threats to Biodiversity in National Parks

Tamil nadus biodivesity

An area of 307.85 sq.kms. i.e. 1.36% of the total forest area of Tamilnadu has been brought under National Parks. Further, an area of 2,602.07 sqkm. has been declared as wildlife sanctuaries. 2 BR: Nilgiris and another in the Gulf of Mannar

There is an especial category of visitors to several protected areas that need particular attention. Pilgrimages to very well known and deeply revered sites impinge on several protected areas where literally thousands of pilgrims go to temples and other sites within PAs. Fortunately, the biggest influx occurs annually on pre-determined anniversaries, so special arrangements can be made. Some of the best known are the annual pilgrimage to Sabrimala in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, to the fort in Bandhavgarh by the Kabir Panthis, in Sariska to the ancient temples. Even in Ranthambore the temple in the fort on the hill attracts vast numbers of worshippers. Many, if not most PAs have a temple associated with it and worshipers do want and need access. Keeping in mind the religious sentiment of the people and the long-standing tradition of allowing access, it is not practical to cutoff access to these sites. However, it is important that the park and forest authorities ensure that traffic is regulated and the safety of both wildlife and pilgrims is ensured. Permitted periods and routes can be delineated and public awareness enhanced to make the annual event eco-sensitive. Religious bodies and NGOs can be usefully harnessed to be a force for conservation. The aim should be to not only protect the PA and wildlife, but to try and send back pilgrims as a force for conservation

Wetlands degradation
Causes Change in local hydrology Input of sewage and factory effuents Pprocess of eutrophication

Ameiolration practices
Ban on plastic Restriction of visitors Human free core zone

Destruction of Tropical Forests

Subsidence

Mining path

Reducing Deforestation and Degradation Deforestation : human-induced conversion of forest to non forest land use. Forest degradation selective logging, fire and other anthropogenic disturbances, and fuel wood collection . Deforestation and degradation can be delayed or reduced through sustainable forest management . Providing economic returns from NTFPs and forest uses not involving tree removal (e.g., ecotourism). Protecting forest from harvest results increased forest carbon stocks, but also reduces the wood and land supply to meet other societal needs . large carbon stocks ( 350-900 tCO2/ha) are not emitted when deforestation is prevented.

Afforestation/Reforestation

Afforestation leads to increases in biomass , dead organic matter carbon pools, and to lesser extent in soil carbon pool.
Afforestation can yield considerable soil carbon accumulation rates of 1 to 1.5 t CO2/yr). carbon accumulation after Afforestation ranges globally between 1 and 35 t CO2/ha/yr . Afforestation costs vary by land type and region and affected by costs of available land, site preparation, and labor. major constraint is high initial investment to establish new stands and several-decade delay until afforested areas generate revenue. non-carbon benefits such as reduction in erosion or non consumptive use of forests, however, can more than off-set Afforestation cost.